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THE 

KINGDOM  2?  SI  AAV 


His  MAJESTY  THE  KING  OF  SIAM 


The  Kingdom  of  Siam 

Ministry  of  Agriculture 

Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition 

St.  Louis,  U.  S.  A. 

1904 

Siamese  Section 

Edited  by 

A.  Cecil  Carter,  M.A. 

Secretary-General  of  the  Royal  Commission 

Illustrated 


New  York  and  London 


Gbe   "Knickerbocker  press 
1904 


COPYRIGHT,  1904 

BY 
JAMES  H.  GORE 


Published,  September,  1904 


Ubc  fttucfterbocfcer  press,  Hew 


THE  COMMISSION. 


President 

H.  R.  H.  The  Crown  Prince. 

Vice'Presiden  ts, 

H.  R.  H.  Prince  Devawongse  Varopakar. 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs. 

H.  R.  H.  Prince  Mahisra  Rajaharudhai. 
Minister  of  Finance. 

H.  E.  Chow  Phya  Devesra  Wongse  Vivadhna. 
Minister  of  Agriculture. 

Secretary''  General. 

Mr.  A.  Cecil  Carter,  M.A. 
Department  of  Education. 

Members, 

H.  R.  H.  Prince  Sanbasiddhi  Prasong. 

H.  R.  H.  Prince  Marubongse  Siribadhna. 

H.  H.  Prince  Vadhana. 

H.  E.  Phya  Vorasiddhi  Sevivatra. 

H.  E.  Phya  Sukhum  Nayavinit. 

H.  E.  Phya  Amarindra  Lujae. 

H.  E.  Phya  Surasih  Visisth  Sakdi. 

H.  E.  Phya  Kamheng  Songkram. 

H.  E.  Phya  Sunthorn  Buri. 

H.  E.  Phya  Rasda  Nupradit. 

H.  E.  Phya  Kraibej  Ratana  Raja  Sonkram. 

H.  E.  Phya  Vijayadibadi. 

Phra  Phadung-Sulkrit. 

Commissioner'  General 

Professor  James  H.  Gore. 
The  Columbian  University. 


Pavilion. 

A  reproduction  of  the  principal  building  of  Wat 
Benchamabopit  now  in  course  of  erection  in  Bangkok. 


134924 


INTRODUCTION 

THE  following  notes  on  Siam  have  been  written 
by  high  officials  in  different  departments  of 
the  Government  Service,  and  while  in  no  way  pro- 
fessing to  give  a  full  description  of  the  people  and 
country,  each  article  is,  as  far  as  possible,  an  accurate 
statement  of  the  existing  conditions.  These  articles 
were  written  during  1903  and  the  statistics  refer  to 
this  year  and  years  anterior  to  this.  There  being 
as  yet  no  standard  for  the  transliteration  of  the 
Siamese  characters  each  author  has  followed  his 
own  system. 

THE  EDITOR. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I. — THE  ROYAL  FAMILY  i 

II. — THE  GOVERNMENT          ....  7 

III. — A  GENERAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  SIAM          .  17 

IV. — NAVAL  AND  MILITARY  FORCES       .         .  63 

V. — SIAM  FROM  AN  HISTORICAL  STANDPOINT  77 

VI. — LANGUAGE  OF  SIAM        ....  87 

VII. — RELIGION  OF  SIAM          ....  93 

VIII. — THE  CAPITAL 103 

IX. — FINANCE 127 

X. — CURRENCY  AND  BANKING       .        .        .  141 

XI. — AGRICULTURE 151 

XII. — FORESTRY      .         .         .         .         .         .171 

XIII.— JUSTICE 183 

XIV. — EDUCATION 201 

XV. — ARCHAEOLOGY 2II 

vii 


Vlll 


Contents 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

XVI. — TRANSPORTATION  AND  MEANS  OF  COM- 


MUNICATION 
XVII.— MINING 
XVIII.— COMMERCE      . 

XIX. — THE  INDUSTRIES  OF  SIAM 
INDEX 


227 

237 
247 
261 
273 


PAGE 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

His  MAJESTY,  THE  KING  OF  SIAM          Frontispiece 

HER  MAJESTY,  THE  QUEEN  OF  SIAM      ...  2 
His  ROYAL   HIGHNESS,   THE  CROWN  PRINCE    OF 

SIAM        ........  4 

THE  ROYAL  PALACE 12 

A  TEMPLE 26 

LAOS  FAMILY 30 

THE  OPENING  OF  A  CANAL    .....  32 

LOWER  SIAM          .......  36 

A  RAILROAD  STATION,  LOWER  SIAM      ...  40 

A  FARM-HOUSE 46 

PLOUGHING 50 

PRIMITIVE  IRRIGATION 54 

A  VILLAGE  FESTIVAL    ......  58 

AN  ELEPHANT  WITH  HOWDAHS     ....  60 

MINISTRY  OF  WAR  68 


Illustrations 


PAGE 


THE  ROYAL  MILITARY  COLLEGE    ....  70 

MOUNTED  PUKET  POLICE      .....  74 

MENAM  RIVER       .......  80 

A  TEMPLE 84 

His  MAJESTY  LANDING  AT  A  TEMPLE  ...  96 

A  GROUP  OF  PRIESTS    ......  98 

THE  CITY  WALL 106 

THE  ROYAL  PALACE     ......  108 

THE  SARANAROM  PALACE     .         .         .         .         .no 

BANGKOK  TRAMWAY     ......  112 

THE  PORT  OF  BANGKOK         .         .         .         .         .114 

CANAL  IN  BANGKOK 116 

A  STREET  IN  BANGKOK 124 

THE  CUSTOM  HOUSE      ......  130 

HEAD  OFFICE,  RAILWAY  DEPARTMENT  .         .         .  138 

PLOUGHING  CEREMONY 154 

PLANTING  RICE 156 

HULLING  RICE 158 

ARMY  HEADQUARTERS 164 

THRESHING  WITH  BUFFALOES        ....  166 

LOADING  A  LOG    .......  174 

LOGGING       ........  176 

THE  MINISTRY  OF  JUSTICE 186 

A  BUDDHIST  TEMPLE 204 


Illustrations 


PAGE 


SCHOOL  FOR  GIRLS        ...                          .  208 

RUINS  AT  AYUTHIA 214 

AN  OLD  TEMPLE 218 

MINISTRY  OF  THE  INTERIOR 242 

TIDAL  CANAL 252 

MAKING  RATTAN  ROPES 256 

MINISTRY  OF  FOREIGN  AFFAIRS     ....  264 

A  FISHING  SCENE 268 

A  RUINED  TEMPLE 270 


CHAPTER  I 
THE  ROYAL  FAMILY 


HER  MAJESTY  THE  QUEEN  OF  SIAM 


f  OF  THE 

[UNIVERSITY 

'" 


CHAPTER  I 

THE   ROYAL  FAMILY 

HIS  Majesty,  Chulalongkorn,  King  of  Siam  of  the 
North  and  South,  Sovereign  of  the  Laos,  the 
Malays,   etc.,    is  the  fifth  sovereign   of  the  Chak- 
rakri  Dynasty,  founded  one  hundred  and 

The  King. 

twenty-one  years  ago.  His  Majesty  is  the 
eldest  son  of  King  Mongkut,  and  was  born  on  Sep- 
tember 20,  1853.  He  succeeded  his  father  in  1868, 
reigning  under  a  regency  until  he  came  of  age.  Since 
then  His  Majesty  has  introduced  many  important 
reforms,  and  Siam  owes  much  of  her  prosperity  to 
her  King's  energy  and  initiative.  He  works  harder 
than  most  of  his  subjects,  whose  welfare  he  ever  has 
at  heart.  In  1897,  His  Majesty  undertook  a  jour- 
ney to  Europe  where  he  was  well  received  and 
entertained  by  the  European  sovereigns  whose 
countries  he  visited.  This  journey,  like  everything 
else  His  Majesty  undertakes,  was  for  the  benefit  of 
his  country  and  his  people  and  has  already  produced 

3 


4  Kingdom  of  Siam 

good  results.  He  is  a  keen  observer  and  he  brought 
back  with  him  many  ideas  formed  or  gathered  during 
his  travels  abroad.  He  is  the  only  independent 
Buddhist  sovereign  in  the  world  and  is  therefore 
looked  upon  as  the  chief  supporter  of  the  religion 
of  the  Buddha.  Under  his  wise  and  beneficent  rule 
the  future  prosperity  of  Siam  is  fully  assured,  and 
her  people,  imitating  the  noble  aims  and  efforts  of 
their  monarch,  are  destined  to  take  a  prominent 
position  among  the  civilized  nations  of  the  world. 

His  Royal  Highness,  Maha  Vajiravudh,  Crown 
Prince  of  Siam,  Prince  of  Ayuthya,  is  the  son  and 
The  crown  ^eir  °*  King  Chulalongkorn.  He  was 
prince.  bom  on  January  i,  1881,  and  was  pro- 
claimed heir-apparent  on  the  death  of  his  elder 
brother,  Crown  Prince  Maha  Vajirunhis,  in  January, 
1895.  His  Royal  Highness  went  to  study  in  Europe 
in  1893,  being  chiefly  resident  in  England.  He  en- 
tered the  Royal  Military  College  of  Sandhurst  in 
1898,  and  also  attended  the  School  of  Musketry, 
Hythe,  where  he  obtained  a  certificate.  He  was  for 
one  month  in  1899  attached  to  a  mountain  battery 
at  the  Artillery  Training  Camp  on  Dartmoor,  near 
Okehampton,  Devon.  In  1900  he  went  up  to  Ox- 
ford University,  studying  history  at  Christ  Church. 
In  1902,  as  a  result  of  his  studies  he  published  a 


H.  R.  H.  THE  CROWN  PRINCE  OF  SIAM 


The  Royal  Family  5 

book  entitled  The  War  of  the  Polish  Succession. 
During  his  stay  in  Europe,  he  represented  his  coun- 
try at  several  notable  functions,  the  most  impor- 
tant ones  being  Queen  Victoria's  Jubilee,  1897; 
Queen  Victoria's  funeral,  1901 ;  King  Alfonso 
XIII. 's  accession,  in  May,  and  King  Edward's 
coronation  in  June,  1902.  Before  returning  to  his 
country,  he  visited  various  European  Courts,  and 
made  a  tour  in  the  United  States  of  America.  He 
also  visited  Japan  on  his  way  home.  At  the  present 
moment,  His  Royal  Highness  is  in  command  of  the 
Royal  Foot  Guards  and  is  also  Inspector-General  of 
the  forces  on  the  Staff  of  the  Siamese  Army. 

The  King  has  several  brothers,  the  chief  one  being 
His  Royal  Highness  Prince  Bhanurangsi,  Minister 
of  War  and  Commander-in-Chief  of  the 

,  The  Princes. 

Royal  Navy.  The  King  s  sons  have  all 
been  or  are  going  to  be  sent  to  Europe  for  educa- 
tion, so  it  may  be  hoped  that  they  will  support 
the  King  in  carrying  out  his  ideas  and  reforms. 
They  have  been  sent  to  learn  various  professions  so 
that  when  the  time  comes  they  may  be  the  leaders 
in  such  professions.  In  a  country  like  Siam,  when 
princes  lead  others  follow.  We  may  therefore  be 
permitted  to  look  forward  to  a  period  of  rapid 
advance  for  the  kingdom  of  Siam. 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  GOVERNMENT 


CHAPTER    II 

THE   GOVERNMENT 

IN  such  a  country  as  Siam,  where  there  is  no  writ- 
ten constitution,  as  there  is  in  the  United  States, 
for  instance,  it  is  not  easy  to  write  of  its  constitution 
in  the  compass  of  a  small  article,  at  least  in  detail. 

Only  the  chief  points  are  here  explained. 

The  Government  is  in  form  an  absolute  mon- 
archy all  power  being  vested  in  the  hands  of  the 
King.  He  is  in  theory,  the  master  of  life  and  death 
and  the  whole  of  the  land  is  his  property,  but  it  is 
hardly  necessary  to  say  that  this  is  not  so  in  prac- 
tice. No  one  is  ever  condemned  without  a  trial, 
and  a  line  is  drawn  between  government  property 
and  the  King's  private  property.  Improvements 
of  the  King's  property  are  never  paid  for  out  of  the 
public  or  government  treasury. 

The  King  is  assisted  in  his  executive  duties  by  a 
council  of  Ministers  (Senapati},  whose  members  are 
of  equal  rank.  Portfolios  are  distributed  as  follows : 

9 


io  Kingdom  of  Siam 

1.  Foreign  Affairs — Prince   Krom   Luang   Deva- 
wongse. 

2.  Interior — Prince  Krom  Luang  Damrong. 

3.  War  and  Navy — H.  R.  H.  Prince  Bhanurangsi. 

4.  Treasury — Prince  Krom  Mun  Mahisra. 

5.  Local  Government  and  Police — Prince  Krom 
Luang  Nares. 

6.  Public  Works  —  Prince   Chowfa  Krom  Khun 
Naris. 

7.  Household — Prince  Krom  Khun  Bidyalabh. 

8.  Justice — Prince  of  Rajaburi. 

9.  Agriculture — Chow  Phya  Devesra. 

10.  Ecclesiastical  Affairs    and    Education — Phya 
Vudhikara  Pati. 

Under  the  Minister  of  Local  Government  is  the 
Sanitary  Board,  with  Chow  Phya  Devesra  as  Presi- 
dent. 

The  Department  of  Public  Works  is  divided  into 
three  sections,  viz. : 

(a)  Public  Works. 

(b)  Post,  Telegraph,  and  Telephone. 

(c)  Railway. 

The  details  of  administration  will  be  found  de- 
scribed elsewhere. 

Besides  the  Council  of  Ministers,  there  are  also  a 
Council  of  State  (Rath  Montri)  and  a  Privy  Coun- 


The  Government  n 

cil  (Anga  Montr 7),  the  members  of  which  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  King  and  hold  their  seats  during 
His  Majesty's  pleasure.  In  the  State  Council  the 
members  perform  the  functions  of  a  legislative 
assembly;  that  is  to  say,  whenever  a  new  law  is 
required  it  is  presented  to  the  Council  in  the  form 
of  a  bill,  and  the  Council  debates  upon  it.  If  the 
bill  is  passed  it  must  receive  the  sanction  of  the 
King  before  it  becomes  a  law.  The  Privy  Council 
has  several  members,  and  its  functions  are  purely 
advisory. 

THE  ADMINISTRATION 

The  administration  of  the  country  was  formerly 
divided  between  the  three  Ministers,  the  Minister 
for  Civil  Affairs  and  the  Minister  for  Military  Affairs, 
with  the  Minister  of  the  Treasury  as  Governor- 
General. 

But  in  1894  the  internal  administration  was  re- 
organized and  the  whole  of  the  country  placed 
under  the  administration  of  the  Ministry  of  the  In- 
terior (Ma ha  that)  with  the  exception  of  the  capital 
and  surrounding  provinces,  which  is  administered 
by  the  Ministry  of  Local  Government. 

At  the  head  of  the  Interior  Administration  is  the 
Minister  appointed  by  the  King  with  a  seat  in  the 


12  Kingdom  of  Siam 

Cabinet;   he  is  assisted  by  a  Vice-Minister,   who, 
however,  holds  no  seat  in  the  Cabinet. 

The  ancient  provinces,  whilst  retaining  their 
boundaries,  are  now  grouped  together  into  Mon- 
thons  or  Circles  under  High  Commissioners,  who 
are  appointed  by  the  King,  but  act  under  the  orders 
of  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior. 

The  administrative  staff  of  a  monthon  com- 
prises : 

The  High  Commissioner  or  Governor-General. 

The  Deputy  Commissioner  or  Deputy  Gov- 
ernor-General. 

The  Chief  Law  Officer. 

The  Assistant  Commissioner. 

The  Chief  Revenue  Officer. 

The  Commandant  of  the  Gendarmerie. 

The  Chief  Treasury  Officer. 

The  Chief  Public  Works  Officer. 

The  Inspector  of  Jails. 

The  Secretary  of  the  High  Commissioner. 

The  Assistant  Inspectors. 
The  administration  of  each  province  comprises : 

The  Governor. 

The  Deputy  Governor. 

The  Public  Prosecutor. 

The  Treasury  Officer. 


The  Government  13 

The  Revenue  Officer. 
The  Gendarmerie  Officer. 

Each  province  is  again  subdivided  into  districts 
under  the  district  officer  (Ainphur),  who  is  assisted 
by  one  or  more  assistant  amphurs  according  to  the 
extent  of  the  district,  and  by  a  subordinate  revenue 
officer. 

The  district  is  again  divided  into  villages  under  a 
village  headman,  and  the  villages  are  subdivided 
into  hamlets  under  an  elder. 

A  hamlet  is  a  collection  of  about  ten  houses  or 
one  hundred  people,  who  elect  their  own  elder  under 
the  presidency  of  the  district  officer.  The  ballot 
may  be  either  open  or  secret  and  a  bare  majority  is 
sufficient.  The  duties  of  the  elder  are  to  report  any 
cases  of  crime  to  the  headman  and  to  preserve  a 
register  of  people  in  his  hamlet,  to  summon  the 
people  in  cases  of  flood  or  fire,  and  to  assist  in 
arresting  criminals.  All  the  inhabitants  are  bound 
under  penalties  to  assist  their  elders  in  the  execution 
of  the  law  when  called  on. 

A  village  consists  of  ten  hamlets.  The  headman 
is  elected  by  the  council  of  elders  and  receives  con- 
firmation from  the  governor  of  the  province. 

His  duties  are  to  supervise  the  elders  and  to  in- 
form them  of  any  new  government  regulation,  to 


H  Kingdom  of  Siam 

provide  transport  and  assistance  for  persons  travel- 
ling on  government  business,  which  must,  however, 
be  paid  for  by  such  persons,  the  headman  having  no 
power  to  requisition  either  goods  or  labor  without 
proper  payment. 

The  district  is  composed  of  villages  the  total  num- 
ber of  whose  inhabitants  is  not  less  than  ten  thou- 
sand people. 

The  district  officer  or  amphur  is  selected  from 
among  the  assistant  district  officers  or  householders 
of  the  district.  The  governor  of  the  province  sends 
three  or  more  names  to  the  high  commissioner,  who 
selects  one  of  them.  He  chooses  his  own  assist- 
ants, but  their  appointment  must  be  approved  of 
by  the  governor  and  confirmed  by  the  high  com- 
missioner. 

All  other  appointments  are  made  by  the  Ministry 
of  the  Interior.  District  officers,  headmen,  and 
elders  must  be  Siamese  subjects  resident  in  their 
districts  and  take  the  oaths  of  allegiance  twice  a 
year  according  to  their  own  form  of  religion.  There 
is  no  religious  disability. 

One  most  important  feature  of  the  administration 
is  the  meeting  of  high  commissioners,  who  assemble 
once  a  year  at  the  capital  under  the  presidency  of 
the  minister  to  discuss  and  draw  up  the  programme 


The  Government  15 

for  the  following  year  and  report  on  the  past  year's 
work. 

Under  the  Ministry  ot  the  Interior  are  also  the 
Forest  Department  and  the  Mining  Department; 
under  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture  are  the  Survey, 
Land  Record,  and  Irrigation  Departments. 


CHAPTER  III 

A  GENERAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  SIAM 


CHAPTER  III 

A  GENERAL  DESCRIPTION   OF   SIAM  BY  THE  DIREC- 
TOR-GENERAL OF   THE   ROYAL  SURVEY 
DEPARTMENT 

SIAM,  "The  Land  of  the  White  Elephant,"  "The 
Land  of  the  Yellow  Robe,"  "The  Country  of 
the  Tai,"  i.  e.,  the  Free,  is  situated  in  the  south- 
east corner  of  Asia.  Geographically  it  may  be 
described  as  lying  within  the  fourth  and  the  twenty- 
first  parallels  of  north  latitude  and  between  the 
ninety-seventh  and  the  one  hundred  and  sixth  paral- 
lels of  eastern  longitude. 

Siam  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Tong-king 
(French)  and  the  Southern  Shan  States  of  Burma 
(British);  on  the  west  by  Annam  (French)  and  Cam- 
bodia (French);  on  the  south  lie  the  Gulf  of  Siam 
and  the  Malay  Peninsula  stretching  southward,  and 
washed  on  the  west  by  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  on 
the  east  by  the  China  Sea,  and  bounded  itself  on 
the  south  by  the  Federated  Malay  States  (British). 

19 


20  Kingdom  of  Siam 

The  length  of  Siam,  north  and  south,  is  about 
1130  miles,  and  the  breadth,  at  the  widest  part 
(latitude  15°  N.),  about  508  miles,  while  the  area  is 
242,587  square  miles,  a  little  more  than  Spain  and 
Portugal  together,  and  the  total  coast-line  is  1760 
miles. 

The  two  most  striking  physical  features  are  the 
Mekawng  River  (unnavigable  for  large  vessels), 
which  runs  for  a  thousand  miles  along  the  northern 
and  eastern  boundaries,  and  the  range  of  mountains 
forming  the  western  flank  of  the  upper  part  of  Siam, 
and  which  continues  southward  to  form  the  back- 
bone of  the  Malay  Peninsula. 

Bangkok,  the  capital  of  Siam,  is  on  the  river 
Menam  Chao  Phya,  commonly  called  the  Menam, 
and  about  thirty  miles  from  the  mouth  of  that  river. 
This  port  lies  at  the  centre  of  the  base  of  the  triangle 
which  forms  that  part  of  the  Menam  valley  to  which 
has  been  given  the  name  "The  Garden  of  Siam." 
This  base  is  one  hundred  miles  long,  and  the  height 
of  the  triangle  is  124  miles,  so  that  the  area  is  over 
six  thousand  square  miles. 

North  of  this  area  the  country  becomes  more 
broken  till  the  mountainous  country  of  the  northern 
part  of  Siam  is  met  with.  East  of  Menam  valley, 
and  lying  between  it  and  the  valley  of  the  Mekawng, 


A  General  Description  of  Siam      21 

is  a  large  tableland,  of  no  great  elevation,  not  well 
watered,  and  therefore  sparsely  inhabited.  The 
nature  of  these  districts,  however,  is  more  minutely 
described  later  on. 

The  third  great  physical  feature  of  Siam  is  the 
Isthmus  of  Kra,  that  narrow,  low  part  of  the  Malay 
Peninsula  which  has  so  long  attracted  the  eyes  of 
engineers  anxious  to  reduce  the  already  shortened 
sea  routes  of  the  world. 

To  give  a  clear  idea  of  the  country  it  is  convenient 
to  divide  it  into  three  divisions:  Upper  Siam,  the 
hilly  country ;  Lower  Siam  (alluvial  plains),  includ- 
ing the  eastern  provinces  (tableland);  and  the 
Siamese  Provinces  of  the  Malay  Peninsula. 

UPPER   SIAM — TERRITORY,    CLIMATE,    POPULATION 

—BY   THE   DIRECTOR  OF   THE   INLAND 

REVENUE  DEPARTMENT 

Upper  Siam  lies  approximately  between  latitude 
16°  north  and  latitude  21°  north,  and  is  drained  by 
four  great  rivers,  the  Maping,  the  Mawang,  the 
Mayom,  and  the  Menam,  each  of  which  is  divided 
from  the  others  by  ranges  of  mountains  forming 
well-marked  watersheds.  These  hills  are  chiefly 
composed  of  limestone  overlaid  by  sandstone  and 


22  Kingdom  of  Siam 

slate.  This  sandstone  is  ferruginous,  and  in  some 
places  iron  conglomerate  occurs  as  one  advances 
southwards. 

From  Chieng-tung  in  British  Burmah  there 
stretches  right  across  Upper  Siam  in  a  southeasterly 
direction  a  line  of  disturbances  or  faults  marked 
by  a  series  of  hot  sulphur  springs.  The  medicinal 
value  of  these  springs  is  entirely  neglected  by  the 
people,  though,  judging  by  their  analogy  to  those 
of  Japan,  these  springs  should  be  of  great  therapeu- 
tic value.  The  four  water  systems  run  from  north 
to  south,  nearly  parallel  to  one  another,  for  over  two 
hundred  miles,  then  converge,  finally  forming  a 
single  river,  the  Menam  Chow  Phya,  the  main  artery 
of  Siam. 

The  soil  in  the  valleys  is  chiefly  a  sandy  loam  of 
great  fertility,  composed  of  detritus  washed  down 
from  the  sides  of  the  hills. 

The  slopes  of  these  hills  were  formerly  covered 
with  dense  teak  forests,  but  owing  to  the  indiscrim- 
inate felling  of  timber  for  many  generations  are  now 
covered  with  worthless  jungle. 

The  usual  result  of  reckless  clearing  of  the  moun- 
tainsides is  very  evident ;  through  the  centre  of  the 
district  runs  a  broad  belt  of  country,  the  natural 
features  of  which  have  been  entirely  altered  by  the 


A  General  Description  of  Siam      23 

decrease  of  rainfall,  and  the  evergreen  forests  have 
been  replaced  by  deciduous  trees. 

The  hillsides  are  cultivated  by  a  nomad  people, 
whose  method  is  as  follows:  Having  selected  a  site 
they  fell  and  burn  the  forest  trees,  a  most  laborious 
work,  and  in  the  space  thus  cleared  and  fertilized 
they  plant  a  crop  of  rice.  After  the  first  harvest 
the  clearing  is  abandoned  for  two  or  three  seasons 
to  allow  the  soil  to  recuperate,  the  length  of  time  it 
lies  fallow  depending  on  the  depth  of  soil  and  the 
contour  of  the  slope. 

A  peculiar  variety  of  rice  is  frequently  planted  in 
these  clearings,  which  are  marvellously  productive; 
when  ripe  the  ears  of  this  rice  are  black,  but  when 
husked  and  boiled  the  grains  are  of  a  reddish  color 
and  a  peculiar  fragrance. 

In  the  valleys  another  variety  of  rice  is  largely 
cultivated,  known  as  glutinous  rice ;  this  rice  is  quite 
different  from  the  white  rice  of  Lower  Siam,  and 
only  those  people  born  and  bred  in  these  districts 
are  able  to  subsist  on  this  peculiar  variety,  though 
it  is  eaten  in  small  quantities  as  a  delicacy  by  the 
people  of  the  plains.  When  eaten  freely  by  those 
unused  to  it,  the  effect  on  the  general  health  and 
constitution  is  most  injurious,  and  for  this  reason 
the  Government  is  making  great  efforts  to  induce 


24  Kingdom  of  Siam 

the  farmers  to  substitute  ordinary  white  rice  in  its 
place. 

Fish,  which  forms  an  integral  part  of  the  food  of 
Lower  Siam,  is  a  rare  luxury  to  the  people  of  the 
north,  the  rivers  of  Upper  Siam  being  markedly 
devoid  of  animal  life,  probably  owing  to  extreme 
shallowness  of  the  water  in  the  dry  season  and 
rapidity  of  the  current  during  the  rains. 

This  difference  in  the  daily  food  forms  one  of  the 
great  contrasts  between  Upper  and  Lower  Siam. 

The  second  most  important  agricultural  product 
of  Upper  Siam  is  tobacco.  This  is  generally  planted 
after  the  subsidence  of  the  rains  on  those  parts  of 
the  bank  which  have  been  under  water  during  the 
floods,  though  occasionally  it  is  planted  in  the  rice- 
fields  as  a  second  crop.  The  leaf  is  of  a  peculiarly 
fine  texture  and  would  probably  displace  foreign 
tobacco  in  the  local  markets  were  it  cured  by 
scientific  methods. 

The  method  of  curing  it  in  vogue  is  extremely 
primitive ;  the  leaves  are  first  plucked  and  then  kept 
in  the  dark  to  allow  a  part  of  the  natural  moisture 
to  evaporate. 

After  this  they  are  folded  lengthways  and  placed 
one  on  another,  then  cut  in  cross-sections  by  a  small 
hand  machine;  after  this  the  cut  leaves  are  exposed 


A  General  Description  of  Siam      25 

to  the  sun  for  one  or  two  days,  and  the  tobacco  is 
ready  for  consumption. 

A  large  proportion  of  this  home-grown  tobacco  is 
used  for  chewing,  mixed  with  the  areca  nut  and 
betel  leaf.  Foreign  tobacco  is  never  used  in  this 
way. 

Tea  grows  wild  on  the  slopes  of  the  hills  and  is 
also  cultivated  to  a  small  extent ;  it  is  not  employed 
as  a  beverage,  but  is  pickled.  After  the  leaves  have 
been  plucked  they  are  exposed  to  the  sun  for  two 
or  three  days  and  then  steamed  to  remove  tannin 
and  glucose ;  the  leaves  are  then  thrown  into  small 
pits  and  weighted  down,  where  they  ferment.  After 
fermentation  they  are  ready  for  use.  This  product, 
known  as  mieng,  is  rolled  into  balls,  and  one  of 
the  balls  is  placed  in  the  hollow  of  the  cheek  and 
allowed  to  remain  there  until  the  soluble  constitu- 
ents of  the  tea  have  been  extracted  by  the  action 
of  the  saliva. 

The  appearance  of  the  people  who  indulge  in  this 
practice — and  it  is  almost  universal  among  the  in- 
habitants of  Upper  Siam — is  extremely  quaint,  the 
ball  of  tea  making  a  huge  swelling  on  one  side 
of  the  face,  as  though  the  person  were  suffering 
from  a  severe  attack  of  toothache.  This  method  of 
using  tea  appears  to  be  peculiar  to  Upper  Siam ; 


26  Kingdom  of  Siam 

the  Burmans  and  Thibetans,  although  preparing  the 
leaves  in  very  much  the  same  way,  use  it  in  quite  a 
different  manner. 

The  cultivation  of  the  poppy  for  opium,  although 
in  its  infancy,  promises  to  become  of  considerable 
importance.  It  is  cultivated  chiefly  on  the  Burmese 
frontier  by  a  race  known  as  the  Meow,  who  have 
probably  become  acquainted  with  the  method  of 
cultivation  from  the  people  under  British  rule. 

Other  foodstuffs  are  planted  to  a  minor  extent 
but  only  for  local  consumption,  e.  g.,  sugar-cane, 
bananas,  oranges,  mangoes,  limes,  and  various  in- 
digenous fruits. 

The  country  has  proved  itself  capable  of  produc- 
ing most  European  vegetables,  and  in  many  of  the 
large  towns  cabbages,  beet-roots,  lettuce,  carrots, 
etc.,  can  be  procured. 

There  are  no  large  centres  of  industry,  but  a  good 
deal  of  work  is  done  by  people  in  their  own  homes. 

Most  houses  possess  a  loom,  in  which  is  woven 
both  silk  and  cotton  cloth  sufficient  for  the  needs 
of  the  household. 

The  yarn  and  raw  silk  are  mostly  imported.  In 
Chieng  Mai,  the  capital  of  Upper  Siam,  a  large  quan- 
tity of  lacquer-ware  is  made  chiefly  by  the  immi- 
grants from  the  old  capital,  Chiengsen. 


A  TEMPLE 


A  General  Description  of  Siam      27 

The  foundation  of  this  ware  is  woven  bamboo ; 
the  frame  is  coated  with  a  paste  of  wood  oil  mixed 
with  bone  ash,  and  when  nearly  dry  a  second 
coating  of  wood  oil  mixed  with  cinnabar  is  applied 
and  allowed  to  harden.  On  the  smooth  surface 
thus  produced  the  pattern  is  engraved  by  sharp 
tools  and  the  incisions  filled  with  a  black  varnish ; 
the  whole  is  then  rubbed  smooth  with  pumice-stone 
and  a  final  coating  of  varnish  applied. 

Many  specimens  of  this  ware  will  be  found  among 
the  Siamese  exhibits. 

A  small  amount  of  native  iron  is  worked,  chiefly 
for  the  manufacture  of  knife-blades. 

Bronze  casting  must  formerly  have  reached  a  high 
degree  of  excellence,  but  to-day  is  chiefly  confined 
to  replicas  of  existing  work.  Scattered  profusely 
over  the  country  are  to  be  found  bronze  statues  of 
Gautama,  some  life-size,  many  larger,  but  nearly  all 
of  artistic  workmanship.  The  reason  of  the  decay 
of  this  craft  is  probably  due  to  the  gradual  shifting  of 
the  centre  of  the  Siamese  race  to  the  south.  The 
artists  followed  in  the  train  of  the  Court,  leaving 
behind  them  many  magnificent  specimens  of  their 
art  neglected  and  uncared  for. 

Silverware  is  manufactured  to  a  small  extent ;  the 
workmanship,  however,  is  crude,  though  possessing 


28  Kingdom  of  Siam 

a  distinctive  character.  The  designs  are  repousse  in 
very  high  relief. 

A  large  amount  of  unglazed  pottery  ware  is  manu- 
factured, chiefly  for  domestic  use,  e.  g.,  water-jars, 
cooking-pots,  goblets,  flower-pots,  etc.  Most  of 
these  are  of  their  natural  red  color  with  an  incised 
design,  but  the  water-goblets  are  frequently  black 
and  of  an  elegant  shape.  Tiles  about  one-eighth 
inch  in  thickness  and  about  four  by  three  inches  are 
largely  made  for  local  use. 

Sticklac  is  found  wild,  but  the  insect  is  also  propa- 
gated artificially.  When  the  insect  settles  on  a  tree 
the  deposit  is  carefully  collected  and  the  insects 
grafted  upon  the  trees  which  are  found  most  suitable 
to  their  reproduction.  The  lac  is  obtained  by 
breaking  off  the  twigs ;  the  insects,  which  are  nour- 
ished by  the  sap,  then  die,  but  certain  of  the  twigs 
are  left  over  to  serve  as  the  nucleus  for  the  following 
year.  Very  little  of  this  lac  is  used  locally,  the  great 
bulk  being  exported ;  it  is  prepared  by  boiling  in 
water,  the  liquid  giving  a  splendid  scarlet  dye  and 
the  residue  a  sealing-wax  of  a  low  melting-point. 

Many  of  the  people  are  engaged  in  breeding  oxen 
and  water  buffaloes.  The  oxen  are  in  great  demand 
as  pack-animals  and  the  buffaloes  for  agricultural 
operations  and  hauling  lumber. 


A  General  Description  of  Siam      29 

To  the  east  are  large  salt  workings  which  not  only 
supply  Upper  Siam  but  export  to  surrounding 
countries.  The  salt  is  extracted  from  the  earth  in 
a  systematic  manner;  a  well  is  dug,  lined  with  tim- 
ber, and  the  brine  hauled  up  in  buckets.  This  brine 
is  poured  from  the  buckets  into  wooden  troughs  and 
then  evaporated  in  iron  cauldrons  over  wood  fires; 
unfortunately,  this  salt  possesses  a  peculiar  bitter 
taste,  said  to  be  due  to  the  presence  of  sulphate  of 
sodium. 

Saltpetre  for  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder  is 
made  from  the  excreta  of  the  bats  which  haunt  the 
limestone  caves.  The  substance  is  collected  and 
boiled  with  water  in  wooden  vats  furnished  with 
bamboo  tubes,  by  means  of  which  the  lye  is  drawn 
off.  This  lye  is  then  concentrated  and  crystallized 
in  the  same  way  as  the  brine  from  the  salt  wells. 

A  resin  is  collected  in  the  forests  and  used  for 
caulking  boats.  This  resin  is  the  product  of  the 
dammer-bee  and  is  found  in  cavities  in  the  trunks  of 
trees. 

There  are  extensive  cutch  forests,  but  only  the 
wood  is  used,  as  the  people  appear  ignorant  of  the 
method  of  extracting  the  cutch. 

Upper  Siam  is  famous  for  its  boats,  which  at 
present  form  the  only  means  of  transport  and 


30  Kingdom  of  Siam 

communication  between  Upper  and  Lower  Siam. 
These  boats  are  very  strongly  built,  broad,  roomy, 
but  drawing  very  little  water;  they  are  either  rowed 
or  poled,  and  average  about  thirty-five  feet  in 
length. 

The  number  of  these  boats  built  is  decreasing  with 
the  advance  of  the  railway  to  the  north,  and  when 
the  country  is  in  communication  with  Bangkok  by 
rail  the  art  of  building  them  will  probably  die  out. 
At  present  the  journey  from  Bangkok  to  Chieng  Mai 
occupies  from  three  weeks  to  three  months  accord- 
ing to  the  height  of  water  in  the  river.  At  the 
period  of  low  water  it  is  generally  necessary  to  dig 
a  channel  for  the  boats  through  the  sand-banks 
which  stretch  across  the  bed  of  the  river. 

The  average  altitude  of  the  country  is  about  one 
thousand  feet  above  sea-level.  Chieng  Mai,  the 
chief  town,  has  an  altitude  of  one  thousand  feet,  but 
within  an  hour's  ride  is  the  mountain  Doi  Sutep, 
of  over  five  thousand  feet,  used  as  a  health  resort  in 
the  hot  weather 

The  temperature  over  such  a  hilly  country  varies 
largely,  but  the  average  temperature  of  Chieng  Mai 
(one  thousand  feet)  may  be  taken  as  a  mean.  In 
1893  the  average  daily  temperature  for  December 
varied  between  53°  F.  (minimum)  and  77°  F.  (maxi- 


UN: 
^IFQRtiSh, 


A  General  Description  of  Siam      31 

mum) ;  for  March,  the  hottest  month,  between  67° 
F.  and  95°  F. 

The  rainfall  is  governed  by  the  monsoon;  from 
November  to  April  practically  no  rain  falls;  the 
total  from  May  to  October  is  about  forty  inches. 

The  country  is  generally  healthy,  the  principal 
diseases  being  malarial  fevers  and  smallpox ;  goitre 
and  other  diseases  due  to  the  limestone  formation  are 
common.  Cholera  is  rare. 

Western  methods  of  treatment  and  surgery  have 
made  great  progress,  entirely  due  to  the  noble 
efforts  of  the  American  missionaries,  whose  hospitals 
and  dispensaries  are  always  crowded  by  applicants 
for  relief. 

The  bulk  of  the  population  are  Laos,  a  subdivision 
of  the  great  Thai  race;  this  race  has  many  sub- 
divisions, of  which  the  Siamese  alone  have  as- 
similated Western  civilization  and  maintained  an 
independent  position  among  the  nations  of  the 
world. 

A  few  of  the  villages  to  the  northwest  are  in- 
habited by  a  race  called  Mu  Hsu  or  Meow,  probably 
immigrant  and  of  Chinese  origin.  Another  sub- 
division of  the  Thai,  called  Lu,  are  found  in  the  Nan 
district.  These  Lu  have  migrated  to  Siam  within 
the  last  forty  years,  driven  from  their  own  country, 


32  Kingdom  of  Siam 

the  Sibsong  Panna,  an  independent  country  on 
the  southern  borders  of  China,  by  its  internal 
troubles.  They  are  remarkable  for  their  industry 
and  trading  capacity,  and  their  villages  are  models 
of  order  and  cleanliness. 

In  the  district  of  Nan  are  found  the  Yao,  a  people 
of  Chinese  origin  and  characteristics ;  the  men  retain 
the  queue  and  wear  a  turban  flattened  on  the  top ; 
the  dress  of  the  women  is  remarkable  for  its  beauti- 
ful embroidery.  Their  head-dress  is  a  flat  structure 
resembling  a  gigantic  college  cap  or  mortarboard. 

Scattered  over  the  whole  country  are  found  the 
Kamoos,  whose  home  lies  east  of  the  Mekong;  their 
work  is  the  felling  of  the  teak.  Many  return  to  their 
homes  after  having  accumulated  sufficient  wealth; 
those  who  remain  marry  Laos  women  and  settle 
down. 

In  the  west  and  southwest  are  found  many  com- 
munities of  Karens,  chiefly  of  the  Pwo  (white)  and 
Bghai  (red)  septs.  They  are  an  agricultural  race. 

Another  branch  of  the  great  Thai  race  is  found 
distributed  over  the  whole  kingdom.  They  come 
from  the  Shan  country,  which  lies  between  Burmah 
proper  and  China.  These  people  are  great  traders 
and  deal  largely  in  teak ;  they  form  a  wealthy  and 
independent  section  of  the  community. 


A  General  Description  of  Siam      33 

The  population  of  the  provinces  of  Upper  Siam 
may  be  taken  as  follows : 

Chieng  Mai 225,000 

Lampun 45,000 

Lampang 100,000 

Nan 90,000 

Tern 10,000 

Pre 38,000 

Total 508,000 

The  great  bulk  of  the  trade  of  Upper  Siam  is  with 
Burmah  and  China,  the  transport  to  Bangkok  being 
too  costly.  It  is  carried  by  caravans  composed  of 
mules,  pack-bullocks,  and  carriers.  The  imports 
from  China  are  chiefly  brassware,  ponies,  and  silk ; 
walnuts  are  also  largely  imported,  but  rather  as 
ballast  than  as  a  paying  freight,  as  the  caravans  are 
usually  thirty  days  en  route.  The  imports  from 
Burmah  are  chiefly  piecegoods,  opium,  and  ponies. 
The  exports  are  chiefly  sticklac,  horns,  hides,  bees- 
wax, and  imported  goods. 

LOWER  SIAM — BY  THE   DIRECTOR  OF  THE  IRRIGA- 
TION DEPARTMENT 

Lower  Siam  embraces  the  extensive  plain  of  the 
Menam  Chow  Pya,  the  main  artery  of  the  country 
and  of  the  neighboring  Bangpakong  and 
Mekong  rivers,  whilst  the  adjacent  plain 
of  the  Pechaburi  River  forms  a  transitional  junction 


34  Kingdom  of  Siam 

between  the  plains  of  Lower  Siam  and  the  Malay 
Peninsula. 

Lower  Siam  can  be  considered  to  begin  about  as 
far  north  as  the  junction  of  the  Nam  Ping  and  the 
Nam  Po,  the  principal  branches  of  the  Menam 
Chow  Pya,  at  a  northern  latitude  of  about  15°  20', 
and  stretches  as  a  broad  plain  towards  the  Gulf  of 
Siam,  over  a  length  of  about  150  kilometres  from 
the  east  to  the  west. 

To  the  west  Lower  Siam  reaches  to  the  hill  ranges 
that  separate  Siam  and  Lower  Burmah,  and  to  the 
east  it  stretches  to  the  hill  range  which  separates 
the  Menam  basin  from  Korat  plateau. 

The  Menam  Chow  Pya  is  the  most  important  river 
of  Siam  from  every  point  of  view.  The  river  begins 
to  bear  the  above-mentioned  name  at  Paknampo, 
the  junction  of  the  Nam  Ping  and  the  Nam  Po,  its 
principal  tributaries. 

The  Nam  Ping  drains  a  rapidly  sloping,  compara- 
tively narrow  valley,  together  with  the  adjacent 
mountainous  regions,  and  shows  somewhat  the  char- 
acter of  a  torrent  running  through  a  wide,  sandy 
bed.  A  sudden  rise  and  fall  of  some  feet  in  a  few 
hours,  which  is  enormous  for  Siam,  not  infrequently 
occurs,  and  in  the  dry  season  the  river  is  only  navi- 
gable for  very  shallow  craft. 


A  General  Description  of  Siam      35 

The  Nam  Po  unites  the  slow  waters  of  the  Pitsnu- 
loke  and  the  Savankoloke  rivers.  These,  which  are 
frequently  interconnected,  drain  the  extensive  and 
flat  upper  Menam  plain  and  adjacent  hill  regions. 
In  the  plain  they  show  quite  the  character  of  lowland 
rivers,  the  water  running  calmly  through  deep  beds 
and  the  banks  to  the  storage  capacity  of  the  annually 
inundated  swamps  in  the  lowest  parts  of  the  upper 
Menam  plain.  Both  are  navigable  for  a  good  dis- 
tance upstream,  even  in  the  dry  season. 

Below  Paknampo  the  united  river  runs  through 
the  lower  Menam  plain.  At  Bang  Klong  Kiew  and 
at  Chainat  the  river  gives  part  of  its  water  to  the 
Supan  River  and  the  Menam  Nawi,  and  at  Ban 
Takwai  to  the  Lopburi  River.  The  Supan  River 
runs  nearly  parallel  to  the  main  channel  and  joins 
the  sea  at  Tachin.  The  Lopburi  River  at  Ayuthia 
joins  the  Pasak  River,  another  principal  tributary 
of  the  Menam  Chow  Pya,  again.  The  Pasak  River 
drains  the  long  and  extensive  valley  to  the  east  of 
the  Nam  Po  area.  The  Menam  Nawi  also  joins  the 
main  channel  again.  About  250  kilometres  below 
Paknampo,  near  Paknam,  the  main  channel  empties 
into  the  Gulf  of  Siam. 

The  Menam  Chow  Pya  carries  down  a  great 
quantity  of  silt  and  sand,  derived  from  the  slate  and 


36  Kingdom  of  Siam 

sandstone  formations  of  its  catchment  area,  and  at 
its  mouth  has  deposited  an  enormous  bar,  which  is 
a  great  impediment  to  navigation. 

The  Bangpakong  River  receives  its  rather  sluggish 
water  from  an  almost  perfectly  flat  catchment  area  of 
very  gentle  slope,  bounded  to  the  west  by  the  Me- 
nam  plain  and  on  the  other  sides  by  low  hill  ranges. 

The  Mekong  River  derives  its  supply  from  the 
extensive,  rather  high,  densely  wooded  hill  ranges 
and  narrow  valleys  west  of  the  Menam  plain,  and 
runs  with  a  considerable  fall  and  a  fast  current 
through  the  plain  west  of  the  lowest  parts  of  the 
Menam  plain. 

The  whole  lower  Menam  plain  and  the  plains  of 
the  neighboring  rivers  show  in  all  respects  the  most 
regular  type  of  river-deposited  alluvial  lowlands, 
having  a  fairly  uniform,  slowly  decreasing  slope,  with 
the  rivers  running  on  ridges,  and  swampy  tracts  in 
the  lowest  parts  between. 

Paknampo  lies  thirty-two  metres  above  the  ebb- 
level  of  the  Gulf  of  Siam,  and  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  the  ground-level  is  about  four  metres'  above 
ebb-level.  Thus  the  average  slope  of  the  land  is 
about  one  to  nine  thousand,  the  distance  from 
Paknampo  to  the  gulf  being  about  250  kilometres. 

In  the  upper  parts  of  the  plain,  between  Paknam- 


OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY   j 

OF 


A  General  Description  of  Siam      37 

po  and  Chainat,  some  low  hills  crop  out  of  the 
alluvial  upper  stratum.  But  below  this  scarcely  any 
spot  of  greater  elevation  than  its  surroundings  inter- 
rupts the  flatness  of  the  plain  and  the  regularity  of 
the  slope. 

The  soil  of  Lower  Siam  is  clayey,  with  more  or 
less  quartz  sand.  The  substratum  is  a  marine  sand 
formation. 

The  plain,  where  not  cultivated,  is  chiefly  covered 
with  jungle  grass,  where  herds  of  elephants  live  on 
brushwood  and  bamboo.  Extensive  forests  do  not 
exist.  Except  in  the  high  tracts  along  the  rivers, 
even  clumps  of  trees  are  scarce  in  the  greatest  part 
of  the  plain,  apparently  in  consequence  of  occasional 
floods  and  want  of  drainage. 

The  coast  of  Lower  Siam  is  flat,  with  a  broad, 
muddy  shore,  and  is  covered  with  mangrove  trees, 
and  further  inland  with  nipa  groves.  Lagoons  and 
dunes  do  not  exist. 

The  ground  at  the  coast  is  only  slightly  elevated 
above  ordinary  high-tide  level,  so  that  extraordinary 
high  tides  overflow  a  strip  of  the  adjacent  land. 

The  difference  between  ebb-  and  flood-level  is 
three  to  four  metres  in  the  gulf  and  causes  the  sea- 
water  to  run  far  up  the  rivers  in  the  dry  season, 
when  the  discharge  of  water  by  the  rivers  is  small. 


38  Kingdom  of  Siam 

There  is  a  continual  slow  increase  of  land  along 
the  coast  of  Lower  Siam. 

Lower  Siam  lies  between  the  thirteenth  and  six- 
teenth degrees  of  north  latitude,  thus  it 

Climate. 

is  a  tropical,  though  not  quite  an  equa- 
torial, country. 

Because  of  this  situation  there  is  a  quite  distinct 
cool  winter  season  in  Lower  Siam  and  a  distinct  hot 
season. 

The  hot  season,  however,  falls  not  in  the  summer, 
but  in  the  springtime,  in  consequence  of  the  influ- 
ence of  the  southwest  monsoon. 

The  southwest  monsoon  commences  generally 
towards  the  end  of  April.  Then  the  breeze  grows 
stronger  and  the  rains  gradually  commence;  first 
come  some  occasional  showers  termed  the  mango 
showers,  as  they  occur  at  the  time  when  the  mango- 
tree  is  in  flower.  In  June  the  rains  become  fairly 
regular.  The  influence  of  the  rains  and  of  the  breeze 
moderate  considerably  the  heat  of  the  summer. 

The  southwest  monsoon  and  the  rains  usually 
last  till  about  the  end  of  October,  when  the  north- 
east monsoon  begins,  and  dry  weather  follows.  The 
height  of  the  rainy  season  falls  in  September.  Be- 
fore and  after  this  only  rare  showers  occur. 

The  combined  influence  of  the  solar  season  and 


A  General  Description  of  Siam      39 

the  monsoons  governs  the  climate  of  Lower  Siam  in 
such  a  way  that  the  Siamese  divide  the  year  in  three 
seasons,  namely:  a  hot  one  (March-June),  a  wet 
one  (July-October),  and  a  cool  one  (November- 
February). 

Climatical  data  are  as  yet  scarce  in  Siam. 

With  regard  to  records  concerning  temperature, 
this  is  especially  the  case.  The  few  data  available, 
however,  agree  fairly  well. 

According  to  these  data  the  highest  temperature 
rises  above  100°  F.  in  the  hot  season,  and  the  lowest 
approaches  50°  F.  in  the  cool  season,  whilst  the 
average  temperature  can  be  put  at  above  80°  F. 

The  records  of  temperature  for  1902,  as  kept  by 
the  Chief  Medical  Officer  of  Health  at  Bangkok,  are 
stated  in  the  following  table : 

TEMPERATURE  IN  SHADE 

Month                                 Average  Highest                      Lowest 

January 76°. 82  F 93°  F 59°  F. 

February 77°          94°  56° 

March 84°. 8       102°  70° 

April 86°          100°  73° 

May 85°. 88     102°  73° 

June 86°. 56  100°  74° 

July 85°    98°  ..73° 

August 84°.  i       98°  74° 

September 82°.  43     97°  70° 

October 83°          94°  73° 

November 82°. 4       93°  68° 

December 8i°.2       95°  69° 


40  Kingdom  of  Siam 

The  records  of  the  rainfall  also  are  scanty  in  Siam 
and  with  many  breaks.  From  the  existing  records 
are  derived  the  following  figures,  concerning  the 
average  monthly  rainfall  in  Bangkok  during  the  ten 
years'  period,  1882-1891  : 

AVERAGE  RAINFALL  IN  BANGKOK 

January 2.23  cm. 

February 3.76  cm.  ^    For    nine    years    only; 

March 1.40  cm.       consequently     the     an- 

April 4.71  cm.    /-nual  average    does   not 

May 17.34  cm.    I    agree  with  the  sum  of 

June 14.02  cm.  )   the   monthly   averages. 

July 14.73  cm. 

August 17-93  cm. 

September 28.90  cm. 

October 20.83  cm. 

November 6. 58  cm. 

December 0.38  cm. 

Annual 130.20  cm. 

The  maximum  annual  rainfall  recorded  in  Bang- 
kok is  194.36  cm.  in  1849;  tne  minimum  85.75  cm-  m 
1884. 

During  the  last  four  years,  in  a  great  number  of 
places  all  over  the  country,  regular  rainfall  observa- 
tions have  been  recorded.  The  average  of  all  these 
records  for  the  lower  Menam  plain  is  120.01  cm. 
per  year. 

It  is  a  matter  of  interest  that,  according  to  the 


A  General  Description  of  Siam.      41 

results  of  these  records,  the  amount  of  rain  is  much 
smaller  in  Lower  Siam  than  in  the  upper  Menam 
basin  and  than  in  the  hill  region  between  the  Menam 
and  the  Mekong  basins.  Comparison  of  the  figures 
for  the  average  rainfall  in  the  northern  provinces  of 
Siam  (149.24  cm.)  and  in  the  eastern  hill  range 
(Muaklek  149.78  cm.  and  Hinlap  169.23  cm.)  with 
the  figures  for  Lower  Siam  (120.01)  show  this  fact 
clearly. 

In  the  Malay  Peninsula  (average  221.35  cm-)  and 
in  the  southeastern  provinces  of  the  kingdom  (aver- 
age 252.22  cm.)  the  rainfall  also  appears  to  be  much 
greater  than  in  Lower  Siam. 

These  facts  are  well  known  by  long  experience, 
and,  indeed,  they  can  be  explained  very  rationally 
by  the  function  of  the  high  western  hill  ranges  that 
retain  the  humidity  of  the  southwest  monsoon; 
thus  we  find  that  the  rainfall  in  Lower  Burmah  is 
more  than  one  hundred  inches,  that  is,  about  twice 
as  great  as  in  Lower  Siam.  The  influence  of  these 
hill  ranges  decreases  as  the  distance  to  the  east  in- 
creases, and  also  with  increasing  elevation  of  the 
adjacent  regions,  and  so  naturally  this  influence  is 
greatest  in  Lower  Siam. 

Similar  circumstances  explain  the  fact  that  the 
annual  rainfall  at  Chantaboon,  on  the  west  side  of 


42  Kingdom  of  Siam 

the  hill  ranges  along  the  east  coast  of  the  Gulf  of 
Siam,  amounts  to  300  cm.,  and  in  Pnom  Penh,  the 
capital  of  Cambodia,  on  the  east  side  of  these  hills, 
measures  only  133  cm. 

The  air  in  Lower  Siam  seems  to  be  rather  dry ; 
regular  records  concerning  this  matter,  however, 
have  not  as  yet  been  made. 

Violent  tempests  or  cyclones  are  unknown  in 
Lower  Siam.  There  is  almost  regularly  a  slight  mo- 
tion of  the  air,  which  is  strongest  in  the  winter  time 
and  least  in  the  hot  spring  season.  The  flatness  of  the 
country  is  favorable  to  this  slight  breeze,  especially 
in  the  inland  regions,  where  few  big  buildings  or 
clumps  of  trees  impede  the  motion  of  the  air  near 
the  surface  of  the  earth. 

This  slight  breeze  is  a  great  benefit  to  the  country, 
as  it  tempers  the  influence  of  the  heat. 

With  regard  to  the  direction  and  the  force  of  the 
wind  the  influence  of  the  monsoons  is  prevalent,  but 
the  monsoon  winds  are  very  considerably  modified 
by  the  sea,  which  tends  to  create  a  cool  breeze  from 
the  sea  by  day  and  the  reverse  at  night. 

A  regular  strong  wind  for  a  considerable  time  is 
very  rare  in  Lower  Siam,  though  sudden  squalls 
often  occur  at  the  turn  of  the  seasons  and  in  the 
rainy  season. 


A  General  Description  of  Siam      43 

The  number  of  the  inhabitants  of  Lower  Siam 
may  be  roughly  estimated  at  some  two  and  a  half 
to  three  millions.  The  main  stock  is 

People. 

Siamese  or  Thai,  while  interspersed  are 
numerous  villages  of  Shans  and  Laos  and  of  the 
neighboring  races,  such  as  Malays,  Peguans,  Bur- 
mans,  Cambodians,  Annamese,  Chinese,  etc.  This 
is  clearly  shown  by  the  names  of  the  villages,  for 
we  find  Bangkok  (Malay),  Bang  Raman,  Mon,  or 
Talaing  (Peguan),  Bang  Kamin  (Cambodian),  Bang 
Yuen  (Annamite),  Bang  Laos,  Bang  Gala  Njiew,  or 
Pamah  (Shan). 

Some  of  these  settlements,  especially  those  of  the 
Burmese,  Malay,  and  Cambodians,  were  orginally 
founded  by  prisoners  of  war  and  date  from  the 
period  when  war  was  frequent  among  the  countries 
of  Indo-China;  others  were  founded  by  immigrants 
seeking  easier  conditions  of  life,  as  the  Chinese. 
Many  others,  especially  those  of  the  Catholic  Anna- 
mese, were  founded  by  people  seeking  refuge  from 
the  religious  persecution  of  their  own  country.  The 
rulers  of  Siam  have  always  shown  the  greatest  toler- 
ance in  religious  matters. 

The  people  of  these  settlements  have  intermarried 
with  the  Siamese  and  all  speak  the  Siamese  lan- 
guage. The  men  frequently  retain  parts  of  their 


44  Kingdom  of  Siam 

original  habits  and  dress,  but  the  women  almost 
without  exception  adopt  the  Siamese  dress. 

The  Siamese  are  of  smaller  stature  than  the 
Chinese  and  Indians,  but  taller  than  the  Japanese  and 
Malays.  They  have  straight,  black  hair,  which  is 
worn  cut  short  by  both  sexes;  beards  are  little  de- 
veloped, and  complexion  a  light  brown,  like  the 
races  of  southern  Europe. 

There  is  an  immense  variety  of  types  caused  by 
frequent  intermixture  with  other  races;  a  typical 
race  can  therefore  hardly  be  distinguished.  In 
agricultural  pursuits  they  display  a  marked  per- 
severance and  energy,  and  on  an  average  the  land 
worked  by  a  cultivator  is  greatly  in  excess  of  that 
worked  by  the  cultivators  of  neighboring  races. 

When  the  Siamese  came  down  from  the  northern 
hills  and  invaded  the  plains  they  were  still  in  a  state 
of  primitive  civilization,  but  readily  adopted  the 
civilization  of  the  ancient  Khmers,  their  nearest 
neighbors. 

Siamese  civilization  bears  very  distinctly  the  char- 
acter of  its  origin,  but  nevertheless  many  traits  of  the 
ancient  invading  mountaineers,  who  called  them- 
selves Thai,  i.  c.,  free,  are  preserved  in  the  character 
of  the  people.  The  abject  humility  and  abject 
terror  before  chiefs  and  great  people,  so  common 


A  General  Description  of  Siam     45 

among  Asiatic  peoples,  is  entirely  absent  among  the 
Siamese.  The  people  are  polite,  courteous  to 
strangers,  and  have  a  high  sense  of  self-respect. 

Slavery  in  the  antique  sense  has  never  existed  in 
Siam,  though  bond  serfdom,  ending  with  the  resti- 
tution of  the  debt,  was  formerly  common,  and, 
although  abolished  as  a  legal  institution,  still  exists 
in  outlying  provinces,  though  only  as  a  bona  fide 
agreement  between  master  and  man. 

The  position  of  women  is  high  in  Siam.  They 
enjoy,  both  in  business  matters  and  social  life,  a 
great  independence. 

Though  polygamy  is  permitted  it  does  not  exist 
among  the  great  mass  of  the  people  and  in  no  way 
affects  the  position  of  women. 

Marriage  is  a  civil  contract  and  the  wife  retains 
her  dowry ;  divorce  is  infrequent. 

From  a  literary  point  of  view  the  women  are 
badly  educated,  but  this  is  more  than  balanced  by 
their  native  shrewdness. 

Nearly  every  male  can  read  and  write.  This  is 
largely  due  to  the  fact  that  in  the  interior  primary 
instruction  is  in  the  hands  of  the  priests,  and  girls  are 
not  admitted  to  the  schools  of  the  monasteries. 

The  customs  and  habits  of  the  Siamese  are  largely 
influenced  by  their  religion ;  they  are  charitable  both 


46  Kingdom  of  Siam 

to  the  priests  and  the  poor.  Their  religion  also 
forbids  the  taking  of  life,  and  hence  hunting  is  little 
practised.  Catching  and  eating  of  fish  is  permitted, 
though  looked  down  on  as  a  calling. 

The  national  dress  is  the  panung  for  both  sexes. 
The  panung  is  a  piece  of  silk  or  cotton  cloth  about 
three  yards  long  and  one  broad,  which  is  wound 
round  the  hips,  the  slack  then  rolled  up  and  passed 
between  the  legs  and  hitched  up  behind ;  it  gives  the 
appearance  of  a  pair  of  loose  knickerbockers.  The 
men  wear  a  white  coat  of  European  cut  and  the  wo- 
men a  jacket  or  blouse. 

The  population  of  Lower  Siam  is  an  agricultural 
one. 

In  Lower  Siam,  besides  the  capital,  Bangkok, 
there  exists  comparatively  few  small  towns ;  the  bulk 
of  the  population  live  in  villages  or  soli- 
tary homesteads  situated  chiefly  along 
the  banks  of  the  rivers  or  numerous  canals.  These 
scattered  homesteads  are  a  distinguishing  feature  of 
the  country. 

In  Lower  Siam  communal  lands  are  not  found,  the 
Land  farms  being  either  the  property  of  the 

Tenure.  farmer  or  rented  by  him  from  the  big 
landowners. 

A  peculiar  feature  of  the  population  is  their  fre- 


A  General  Description  of  Siam     47 

quent  removal  to  the  river  banks  during  the  dry 
season,  which  lasts  for  five  or  six  months,  due  to 
the  scarcity  of  drinking  water,  as,  owing  to  the 
alluvial  nature  of  the  soil,  wells  do  not  exist. 

The  typical  home  of  the  farmer  is  a  house  built 
on  piles  five  or  six  feet  above  the  ground,  and 
thatched.  The  house  contains  several  rooms,  with 
well-made  windows  and  doors  and  a  broad  verandah. 
Under  the  house  are  kept  the  ploughs,  harrows, 
carts,  etc. 

There  is  an  enormous  variety  of  boats  used, 
which  are  manufactured  by  the  people  themselves, 
and  are  used  for  transporting  the  crops. 

In  Lower  Siam  the  chief  agricultural  pursuit  is 
that  of  rice-growing;  this,  of  course,  is  not  an  acci- 
dental circumstance,  but  due  to  the  climatic  and 
hydrographic  conditions  of  the  country.  In  the  dry 
season  the  ground  is  too  dry  for  cultivation  without 
artificial  irrigation,  and  in  the  wet  season  too  wet  to 
produce  other  than  rice. 

The  Government  is  now  embarking  on  an  exten- 
sive irrigation  scheme  which  will  embrace  the  greater 
portion  of  the  Menam  valley,  and  when  in  operation 
not  only  will  the  rice  crop  be  extended  and  im- 
proved, but  dry-season  crops  will  then  be  possible. 

Notwithstanding    the    various    difficulties     with 


48  Kingdom  of  Siam 

regard  to  water-supply  which  the  people  have  to 
contend  with,  owing  to  irregularity  of  rainfall,  the 
Siamese  farmer,  with  the  help  of  his  family,  culti- 
vates a  rather  extensive  holding ;  an  average  holding 
is  seven  hectares,  and  fifteen  and  twenty  hectares  is 
not  unknown;  to  this  extensive  cultivation  is  due 
the  large  export  of  rice. 

EASTERN  PROVINCES 

The  'eastern  provinces  of  Siam  embrace  the  west- 
ern part  of  the  Mekong  basin,  generally  known  as 
the  Korat  plateau,  and  the  western  part  of  the  plain 
of  the  Talesap  or  the  great  lake  of  Indo-China,  with 
the  adjacent  hill  and  coast  regions. 

To  the  west  and  to  the  south  the  Korat  plateau 
reaches  to  the  wooded  hill  ranges  which  separate  it 
from  Lower  Siam  and  from  the  Talesap  plain,  and 
to  the  east  and  north  it  is  bounded  by  the  Mekong 
River.  As  the  right  bank  of  the  Mekong  is  flanked 
by  nearly  uninterrupted  hill  ranges,  the  Korat 
plateau  in  fact  can  be  described  as  a  basin  nearly 
surrounded  partly  by  fairly  high,  partly  by  rather 
low,  hilly  regions.  The  central  basin  is  a  flat, 
sandy,  alluvial  plain  (sandstone,  slate,  and  laterite 
are  the  predominating  formations  of  the  surround- 
ing hills),  that  on  an  average  lies  about  two  hundred 


A  General  Description  of  Siam     49 

metres  above  sea-level  and  shows  no  important 
risings,  though  in  some  parts  low  laterite  ridges  crop 
out  as  watersheds. 

These  circumstances  predominate  the  physical 
and  hydrographical  character  of  the  country. 

Nearly  the  whole  basin  drains  into  the  Nam  Moon 
and  its  principal  tributary,  the  Nam  See,  which,  be- 
fore joining  the  Mekong,  pierce  the  hill  ranges  that 
flank  that  river  by  a  series  of  rapids  about  thirty 
kilometres  long.  Only  a  small  part  of  the  territory 
drains  into  the  Mekong  by  separate  small  streams, 
of  which  the  Nam  Loey,  the  Nam  Luang,  and  the 
Nam  Songkran  in  the  north  are  the  most  important. 

The  Nam  Moon  is  navigable  for  big  boats,  during 
about  seven  months  a  year,  from  some  few  kilo- 
metres below  Korat  to  the  commencement  of  the 
rapids,  which  only  can  be  passed  during  a  couple  of 
months  in  the  height  of  the  rainy  season. 

The  regime  of  the  rivers  is  irregular.  In  the  rainy 
season  they  are  not  capable  of  draining  the  country 
properly,  in  consequence  of  the  rapids  in  the  hill 
regions,  so  that  the  greatest  part  of  the  flat  country 
is  turned  into  interminable  swamps,  and  in  the  dry 
season  they  contain  no  water  or  hardly  any,  as  their 
catchment  areas  are  confined  to  the  rainless  plateau 
and  neighboring  hills.  In  the  dry  season  the 


50  Kingdom  of  Siam 

swamps  are  changed  into  a  barren,  treeless  plain, 
the  sandy  soil  of  which  is  strongly  agitated  by  the 
prevailing  southern  winds  and  fills  the  air  with  dust. 
In  the  somewhat  more  elevated,  less  swampy  parts 
low  bamboo  shrub  occurs,  so  far  as  the  extensive 
salt  wastes,  which  cover  a  great  deal  of  the  higher 
tracts  and  border  on  the  swamps  in  many  parts,  do 
not  render  all  vegetation  impossible.  The  more 
elevated  laterite  and  stony  ridges  are  mostly  covered 
with  for -etsc lair 'ieres,  i.  e.y  shadeless  forests  of  sparse, 
poor,  dwarfish  trees;  this  kind  of  forest  is  largely 
dispersed  in  the  lower  parts  of  the  Mekong  River. 
On  the  somewhat  elevated  ridges  of  deposits  along 
the  streams  belts  of  proper  forests  are  usually  grow- 
ing, and  on  these  ridges  the  settlements  and  the 
rice-fields  of  the  sparse  inhabitants  are  found. 

The  plain  of  Talesap  is  an  alluvial  lowland,  ele- 
vated about  from  ten  to  twenty  metres  above  the 
sea-level.  Ranges  of  wooded  hills  separate  it  from 
the  Korat  plateau,  the  plain  of  the  Bangpakong 
River,  and  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Siam.  The 
plain  and  adjacent  hill  regions  drain  into  the  great 
lake  by  the  Kanburee  River  and  its  tributaries, 
among  which  Sangke  River  is  the  most  important, 
and  by  some  smaller  streams.  The  lake  is  in  con- 
nection with  the  Mekong  and  serves  that  river  as  a 


ffl 


A  General  Description  of  Siam     51 

regulating  basin,  so  that  the  water-level  of  the  lake 
rises  and  falls  with  the  floods  of  the  river  in  such  a 
way  that  in  the  connecting  channel  it  alternately 
runs  from  the  lake  to  the  river  and  in  the  reverse 
direction.  This  causes  the  lake  to  silt  up  rapidly. 

In  consequence,  there  is  a  difference  of  about  nine 
metres  between  high  and  low  water-level,  and  at  the 
high  level  the  lake  extends  its  water  over  the  plain 
so  that  the  greatest  part  of  it  is  deeply  flooded.  The 
lake  is  bordered  by  a  belt  of  aquatic  shrub  growing 
in  the  soft  mud.  The  solid  plain  more  inland,  owing 
to  the  fertility  of  the  soil  of  sandy  clay,  when  the 
flood  recedes  is  soon  turned  into  an  endless  jungle  of 
high  grass  where  countless  deer  feed.  In  the  higher 
region  of  older  formation  the  forets  clairieres  appear 
and,  on  the  hills,  forests  proper.  In  the  height  of  the 
dry  season  the  lake  becomes  a  shallow  swamp ;  the 
rivers  grow  quite  dry  or  leave  only  some  dirty  pools 
in  the  lowest  part  of  their  bed,  and  the  whole  coun- 
try assumes  an  extremely  barren  character. 

Cultivation  is  almost  confined  to  and  is  only  fea- 
sible in  those  regions  along  the  rivers  where  flooding 
does  not  reach  more  than  a  convenient  depth. 

The  coast  generally  is  steep  and  rocky,  but  inter- 
rupted by  small  alluvial  plains  at  the  mouth  of  the 
rivers. 


52  Kingdom  of  Siam 

From  the  climatic  point  of  view  the  eastern  pro- 
vinces approach  very  near  Lower  Siam.  As  in 
Lower  Siam,  the  southwest  monsoon  rains  are 
considerably  detained  by  the  hill  ranges  which  sur- 
round the  Korat  plateau  and  the  Talesap  plain  to 
the  west  and  south.  Moreover,  these  hill  ranges 
detain  also  the  diurnal  sea  and  land  breeze.  In 
consequence  the  climate  assumes  a  more  continental 
character  than  in  Lower  Siam ;  the  difference  to 
Lower  Siam  appears  to  be  that  rainfall  is  somewhat 
smaller  and  in  the  hot  season  the  heat  somewhat 
greater,  whilst  in  the  northern  parts  the  cool  season 
is  decidedly  much  cooler. 

The  regions  to  the  south  and  west  of  the  hill 
ranges  along  the  coast  of  the  gulf  are  in  a  particular 
position.  Here  the  annual  rainfall  is  about  three 
metres,  i.  c.,  twice  as  much  as  in  Lower  Siam.  In 
other  points  of  view  the  climate  in  this  region  is 
about  the  same  as  in  Lower  Siam,  but  the  influence 
of  the  sea  is  stronger. 

The  population  of  the  eastern  provinces  is  esti- 
mated at  a  little  more  than  a  million.  About  half 
of  them  are  Laos,  who  live  in  the  Korat  plateau ; 
about  a  quarter  Siamese  (chiefly  in  the  coast  region 
and  in  the  Korat  plateau),  and  the  rest  are  Chinese, 
Cambodians  (chiefly  in  the  Talesap  plain),  etc. 


A  General  Description  of  Siam      53 

The  Laos  are  of  the  same  race  as  the  Siamese,  and 
their  language  shows  only  very  slight  dialectic  differ- 
ences to  the  Siamese  language.  They,  moreover, 
have  the  same  religion,  generally  wear  the  same 
dress,  and  have  almost  the  same  habits,  customs, 
festivals,  houses,  manner  of  life,  and  occupations  as 
the  Siamese. 

The  chief  difference  between  the  Laos  and  the 
Siamese  is,  that  the  latter  have  been  more  under 
the  influence  of  progress  on  European  lines  and 
economically  are  in  much  more  favorable  conditions. 

This  refers,  of  course,  not  only  to  the  Laos,  but 
as  well  to  the  rest  of  the  population  of  the  eastern 
provinces,  among  whom  the  Cambodian,  though  of 
another  race  (they  are  descendants  of  the  ancient 
Khmers  and  of  autochthonous  races  and  speak  a  lan- 
guage of  their  own),  have  the  same  religion  and 
almost  the  same  dress,  customs,  habits,  houses, 
and  manner  of  life  (which  chiefly  appear  to  have 
been  derived  from  the  ancient  Khmers). 

The  Korat  plateau  and  the  Talesap  plain  are 
poor  regions.  In  the  rainy  season  the  country  is 
largely  a  swamp ;  a  great  part  of  the  higher  lands 
have  a  barren,  laterite,  sandy,  or  stony  soil  (in  the 
Korat  plateau)  or  contain  too  much  salt  to  be  cultiv- 
able, so  that  in  general  only  the  belts  of  deposits 


54  Kingdom  of  Siam 

along  the  rivers  are  fit  for  cultivation.  Moreover, 
these  regions  only  are  fit  for  settlement,  because  in 
the  dry  season  the  country  is  nearly  waterless,  as 
only  a  few  of  the  rivers  contain  a  glimpse  of  dirty 
water  that  gathers  in  pools  in  the  deepest  places, 
whilst  the  ground-water,  if  obtainable,  is  generally 
too  salt  to  be  drinkable. 

Removing  to  the  higher  regions  when  the  floods 
commence,  and  to  the  riverside  in  the  dry  season,  is, 
therefore,  often  necessary,  this  compels  people  to 
content  themselves  with  most  primitive  and  uncom- 
fortable shelters. 

Communication,  moreover,  is  still  worse  than 
production.  Roads  are  almost  impassable  in  con- 
sequence of  the  flooding,  and  the  rivers  mostly  are 
navigable  only  during  a  few  months. 

It  is  certainly  no  surprising  fact  that  under  such 
unfavorable  circumstances  the  inhabitants  are  poor 
and  backward  compared  with  the  Siamese  of  Lower 
Siam,  and  that  the  sanitary  conditions  of  the  people 
are  worse  than  anywhere  else  in  Siam.  Enteric  dis- 
eases (dysentery  and  cholera),  fever,  and  small -pox 
are  very  common  in  these  regions. 

The  people  live  in  small  settlements  spread  over 
the  country.  There  are  only  a  few  towns  in  the 
eastern  provinces,  and  these  are  very  small. 


A  General  Description  of  Siam      55 

The  principal  means  of  subsistence  is  rice  growing. 
The  methods  are  primitive;  the  crop  is  uncertain, 
small,  and  of  inferior  quality.  In  the  higher  regions 
the  rice  is  planted  in  the  rainy  season ;  in  the  deep 
inundated  tracts  people  cannot  commence  to  plant 
before  the  water  subsides.  In  the  last  case  the  crop 
is  particularly  uncertain. 

The  Korat  plateau  has  nearly  no  rice  to  spare  for 
export ;  from  the  Talesap  plain  one  to  two  hundred 
thousand  piculs  annually  are  exported. 

Cattle  and  swine  breeding  and  salt  making  out  of 
the  salt  surface  earth  in  the  salt  wastes  are  the  most 
important  industries,  and  silk  weaving,  timber,  to- 
bacco, fishing  in  the  great  lake,  and  collecting  jungle 
produce  are  subsidiary  employments. 

There  is  also  some  mining  of  copper,  iron,  gold, 
and  rubies  in  the  Korat  plateau,  but  this  is  not  of 
real  importance. 

As  these  eastern  provinces  have  little  to  export, 
the  import  trade  and  the  interior  trade  are  of  course 
also  small.  The  coast  regions  are  in  a  much  more 
favorable  condition  with  regard  to  climate  as  well 
as  with  regard  to  soil  and  situation.  In  consequence 
the  people  here  are  in  fairly  favorable  conditions. 
Rice  growing  is  here  also  the  principal  industry, 
and  fishing  in  the  gulf,  pepper  cultivation,  sugar 


56  Kingdom  of  Siam 

manufacturing,  the  timber  and  fire-wood  trades, 
and  collecting  jungle  produce  are  minor  industries. 
Also  ruby  mining  may  be  mentioned  as  a  trade  of 
some  importance  in  the  regions  along  the  east  coast 
of  the  Gulf  of  Siam. 

THE  SIAMESE  PROVINCES  OF  THE  MALAY  PENINSULA 

In  this  article  this  southern  division  will  include 
all  that  part  of  Siam  and  its  dependencies  situated 
in  what  is  geographically  termed  the  Malay  Pen- 
insula. 

Politically  the  peninsula  is  divided  between  Great 
position—  Britain  and  Siam ;  the  dividing  line  run- 
ning along  the  southern  boundaries  of 
Kedah,  Raman,  Kelantan,  and  Tringanu. 

The  territory  which  we  are  now  dealing  with  thus 
includes  the  following  provinces,  starting  from  the 
north  and  coming  south :  Petchaburi,  Bangtaphan, 
Chumpon,  Langsuan,  Chaiya,  Bandon,  Lakon, 
Patalung,  Singora,  Patani,  Nongchik,  Jering,  Saiburi, 
Jalar,  Raman,  Rangeh,  Kelantan,  and  Tringanu,  on 
the  eastern  slope,  and  Kra,  Renong,  Takuapa, 
Panga,  Takuatung,  Gerbi,  Puket,Trang,  Stul,  Perlis, 
and  Kedah,  on  the  west. 

The  country  is  on  the  whole  mountainous;  but 


A  General  Description  of  Siam     57 

far  less  so  than  is  ordinarily  supposed.  The  whole 
general  Malay  Peninsula  has  been  formed  by  a 
granite  upheaval,  which  is  clearly  traced  Physicai 
from  the  dividing  range  between  the  val-  Features, 
leys  of  the  Salween  (Burmah)  and  the  Menam  (Siam 
proper)  right  down  to  Singapore  and  the  islands  to 
the  south  of  it.  This  granite  upheaval  is  not  so 
prominently  represented  in  the  Siamese  division  as 
it  is  in  the  southern ;  but  there  are  several  peaks  of 
from  three  thousand  to  five  thousand  feet  high. 
The  older  geological  strata  are  limestone  and  slate. 
These  have  been  everywhere  greatly  disturbed  and 
altered  by  the  granite ;  and  the  limestone  which  was 
originally  overlaid  by  the  slate  is  frequently  met 
with  at  far  higher  levels,  the  granite  in  its  upward 
passage  having  caused  the  limestone  to  fold  over  the 
slate.  The  limestone  wherever  found  is  highly  crys- 
talline and  very  durable,  offering  a  far  greater  re- 
sistance to  denudation  than  the  granite  or  the  slate. 
Though  the  main  range,  as  already  stated,  runs 
down  the  axis  of  the  peninsula,  yet  the  various  sys- 
tems of  hills  which  make  up  the  main  range  gener- 
ally run  in  a  southwest-northeast  direction.  One 
very  striking  result  of  this  feature  in  the  mountain 
system  is  that  practically  all  the  rivers  issuing  on 
the  east  coast  run  in  a  northeasterly  line,  while 


58  Kingdom  of  Siam 

those  on  the  west  coast  have  a  southwesterly 
course. 

Few  of  the  rivers  are  of  much  importance,  as  the 
areas  drained  by  most  of  them  are  limited,  owing 
to  the  narrowness  of  the  peninsula.  The 
Bandon  (Menam  Luang),  Patani,  and 
Kelantan  rivers  are  the  largest  on  the  east  coast; 
while  the  Takuapa,  Trang,  Merboh,  and  Muda  are 
the  largest  on  the  west.  All  these  rivers  have  bars 
at  their  mouths  and  are  consequently  entered  with 
difficulty  by  ships  of  anything  but  light  draft ;  there 
is,  however,  in  most  cases  deep  water  in  the  rivers 
themselves. 

The  rivers  at  Renong,  Takuapa,  and  Panga,  on 
the  west  coast,  are  very  badly  silted  up  by  tailings 
from  the  tin  mines  worked  in  the  hills. 

From  the  north  down  to  the  southern  limits  of 

Singora  and  Trang,    the  indigenous  population  is 

Siamese;     south    of    that    it    is    Malay. 

Inhabitants. 

1  here  are,  of  course,  many  Malays  north 
of  this  line,  and  Siamese  south  of  it,  and  also  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  a  mixed  breed ;  but  this  is  the  main 
ethnological  division.  Besides  these  two  settled 
races,  there  are  the  Negritos,  who  are  found  very 
sparsely  inhabiting  the  jungle-covered  mountains  of 
Lakon  and  all  the  country  south  of  it.  These  Ne- 


A  General  Description  of  Siam      59 

gritos  probably  represent  the  aboriginal  population. 
They  are  in  an  extremely  low  state  of  culture,  hold- 
ing aloof  from  the  settled  populations,  living  on  wild 
fruits  and  roots,  and  wild  game  which  they  pursue 
with  poisoned  arrows  shot  from  a  blowpipe.  These 
wild  tribes  are  stated  to  be  of  Melanesian  stock,  and 
are  probably  related  to  the  so-called  "Mincopies" 
of  the  Andaman  Islands,  and  the  Aetas  of  the  Philip- 
pine Archipelago.  The  Siamese  and  Malays  are  gen- 
erally similar  to  the  representatives  of  the  same  races 
elsewhere,  so  that  there  is  no  need  to  describe  them 
here.  Besides  the  three  indigenous  races  above 
mentioned,  there  is  a  very  large  immigrant  Chinese 
population. 

The  Chinese  come  chiefly  from  Amoy,  and  many 
of  them  settle  permanently  in  the  country.  In 
Singora  especially  a  great  part  of  the  Chinese  popu- 
lation has  practically  become  indigenous. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  make  any  reliable  estimate 
of  the  numbers  of  the  different  races  inhabiting  the 
region  being  treated  of ;  but  the  following  figures  are 
given  for  what  they  are  worth : 

Malays 900,000 

Siamese 800,000 

Chinese 200,000 

Negritos 10,000 

Total 1,910,000 


60  Kingdom  of  Siam 

The  climate  of  these  regions  may  be  generally  de- 
scribed as  moist  and  hot,  though  seldom  malarious. 
In  the  northern  part,  the  climate  more 

Climate. 

nearly  approaches  that  of  the  Menam 
Valley,  where  there  are  very  distinct  wet  and  dry 
seasons;  but  in  going  south  the  conditions  are 
more  like  those  prevailing  in  Singapore,  where  the 
distinction  between  the  seasons  is  slight,  and  rain 
falls  more  or  less  the  whole  year  round.  It  is  im- 
possible to  give  a  description  of  the  climate,  em- 
bracing the  whole  region,  because  the  conditions 
vary  immensely  in  neighboring  places.  The  pres- 
ence or  absence  of  mountains  on  the  inland  side 
of  different  districts  influences  the  rainfall  to  an 
incredible  extent.  Generally  speaking,  the  east 
coast  gets  most  rain  during  the  northeast  monsoon, 
the  months  of  November,  December,  and  January 
being  particularly  wet;  this,  however,  does  not 
apply  from  Langsuan  northward,  where  the  rains 
are  heaviest  in  August,  September,  and  October. 

On  the  west  coast  the  rains  come  on  during  the 
southwest  monsoon;  June,  July,  and  August  being 
the  wettest  months  in  most  places.  The  rainfall,  as 
stated  above,  is  very  variable ;  and  practically  no 
records  are  available;  but  the  mean  fall  for  the 
whole  region  is  probably  about  ninety  inches,  vary- 


A  General  Description  of  Siam     61 

ing  from  about  sixty  inches  in  the  more  northerly 
parts,  to  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  inches  in 
the  southern. 

The  soil  of  the  plains  is  not  very  rich  in  most 
parts ;  there  is,  however,  some  very  fine  rice  land  in 
Lakon,  Patalung,  Kedah,  and  Kelantan. 
Even  in  sandy  land,  however,  excellent 
crops  are  raised,  the  regular  rainfall  and  absence  of 
any  prolonged  dry  season  being  of  the  greatest  as- 
sistance to  agriculture.  But  the  granite  hills  are 
usually  covered  with  a  thick  covering  of  rich  clay ; 
and  for  all  kinds  of  hill  crops  the  country  is  admir- 
ably adapted.  The  mountains  are  covered  with  the 
densest  and  most  magnificent  tropical  vegetation, 
in  which  the  most  characteristic  and  useful  growths 
are  several  varieties  of  the  guttapercha  (in  the  south 
only),  the  camphor  tree,  ebony,  eaglewood,  sapan, 
rattan,  nibung,  bamboo,  nipa-palm,  cocoanut,  areca, 
and  gomuti. 

The  fauna   is   unusually   rich,    both   the  Asiatic 
mainland   and   the   islands   of   the   Eastern  Archi- 
pelago being   represented   by    numerous 
varieties.   The  elephant,  tiger,  one-horned 
rhinoceros,  tapir,  hog,  and  many  varieties  of  bear 
and  bison  are  met  with.     Quadrumana  are   repre- 
sented by  nine  or  more  specimens.     Amongst  birds 


62 


Kingdom  of  Siam 


there  are  several  varieties  from  Java  and  other  East 
Indian  islands;  in  fact,  the  Malay  Peninsula  is 
largely  the  meeting  ground  for  the  denizens  of  the 
Asiatic  and  the  Polynesian  worlds. 


CHAPTER  IV 

NAVAL  AND  MILITARY  FORCES 


63 


CHAPTER   IV 

NAVAL  AND  MILITARY  FORCES 
THE  SIAMESE  ARMY 

AMONG  the  departments  of  Siamese  administra- 
tion that  have  shared  to  the  full  in  the  progress 
which  forms  so  marked  a  feature  of  the  present  reign, 
the  army  occupies  a  foremost  place;  for  not  only 
have  radical  reforms  been  introduced  into 

Its  Reform 

the  organization  of  this  most   necessary         and  im- 
provement. 

branch  of  the  service,  with  a  view  to  in- 
crease its  efficiency,  but  every  effort  has  been  made 
to  reconcile  as  far  as  practicable  the  inevitable  call 
it  makes  upon  the  time  of  the  younger  and  more 
vigorous  elements  of  the  nation  with  the  exigencies 
of  the  other  branches  of  the  government  service,  as 
well  as  with  the  conditions  indispensable  to  the 
healthy  development  of  the  country's  natural  re- 
sources and  industrial  capabilities. 

With  the  system  until  recently  in  force,  military 
65 


66  Kingdom  of  Siam 

service,  while  weighing  heavily  upon  a  few  particular 
The  om  classes  of  the  population  which  had  to 
exercise  it  hereditarily  as  a  profession, 
did  not  become  an  imperious  duty  for  all  able- 
bodied  citizens  except  in  the  very  moment  of  com- 
mon danger.  Moreover,  the  service  performed  by 
these  classes,  consisting  for  the  most  part  of  govern- 
ment serfs  and  alien  auxiliaries,  had  necessarily  to 
be  taken  by  turns  of  some  months  in  and  some 
months  out,  with  serious  detriment  to  the  homo- 
geneity and  compactness  of  the  army,  and  con- 
tinuous hindrance  to  the  steady  improvement  of  its 
efficiency.  There  was  practically  no  limit  to  the 
duration  of  such  service,  except  physical  incapa- 
bility from  youth  on  the  one  side  and  downright 
decrepitude  on  the  other,  so  that  it  became  a  life- 
long burden  to  those  who  were  restricted  to  it. 

The  many  drawbacks  resulting  from  such  an 
antiquated  system  could  not  avoid  being  fully 
The  recognized,  and  the  reforms  gradually 

Transition.  jntro(juced  into  other  branches  of  the 
administration,  above  all  in  statutory  legislation, 
rendered  possible  the  transition  to  a  new  order  of 
things  more  in  keeping  with  modern  ideas  and  out- 
come of  civilization.  Thus  the  new  system  was  in- 
augurated, in  which  the  fundamental  principle,  that 


Naval  and  Military  Forces         67 

able-bodied  citizens  are  expected  to  serve  a  term 
with  the  colors,  has  been  laid  down  as  a  patriotic 
duty  to  all,  tempered,  as  a  matter  of  course,  by 
such  limitations  and  exemptions  as  the  welfare  and 
most  pressing  needs  of  the  country  and  its  people 
have  rendered  advisable.  The  example  has  most 
happily  in  this  connection  come  from  the  higher 
classes,  led  by  the  members  of  the  Royal  Family, 
many  of  whom  have  now  adopted  the  army  as  their 
profession. 

The  system  recently  adopted  is  similar  to  that  of 
a  militia  or  cantonal  one.  It  has  been  practised  in 
several  monthons,  and  the  result  has  so  The  New 
far  been  very  successful.  According  to 
this  system,  every  man  is  required  to  serve  two  years 
in  the  regular  army,  and  afterwards  is  transferred 
into  the  first  and  second  reserves,  respectively. 

In  case  the  number  in  the  new  ranks  exceeds  that 
required  for  the  standing  army,  the  recruits  are 
passed  into  the  reserves.  While  in  the  first  reserve 
a  man  is  liable  to  be  called  for  training  during  a 
period  not  exceeding  two  months  a  year,  and  while 
in  the  second  reserve  his  training  is  limited  to  fifteen 
days. 

While  on  active  service  all  men  belonging  to  the 
above  categories  are  exempt  from  both  capitation 


68  Kingdom  of  Siam 

and  land  taxes,  and   after  having  completed  their 
terms    of   military    service   become   freed 

Facilities  and 

Exemptions    from   payment   of   similar   taxes   for  the 

Accorded.  . 

rest  of  their  lives. 

Total  exemption  from  military  duty  is  accorded 
to  Chinese  settled  in  the  country,  to  wild  tribes,  to 
physically  disabled  persons,  and  to  recipients  of  a 
royal  authorization  to  that  effect. 

Temporary  exemptions  are  provided  for  in  favor 
of  members  of  the  priesthood,  students  in  the  higher 
standards  during  their  course  of  study  up  to  thirty 
years  of  age,  officials  in  the  civil  service  while  on 
active  duty,  village  headmen  so  long  as  they  exer- 
cise such  functions,  sons  of  disabled  parents  who 
provide  for  their  sustenance,  elder  brothers  who 
support  orphans ;  younger  brothers  as  yet  incapable 
of  earning  a  living,  so  long  as  necessary ;  agricultur- 
ists and  tradesmen  who  do  a  large  business  entailing 
on  their  part  the  payment  of  a  certain  large  sum 
yearly  in  taxes  to  Government,  so  long  as  such  pay- 
ment lasts;  invalids;  persons  involved  in  legal  suits 
to  which  they  personally  attend,  as  long  as  such 
suits  last,  etc. 

These  provisions  are  destined  to  meet  the  peculiar 
conditions  of  the  country  and  people. 

For   the   purpose   of   military    organization,   the 


Naval  and  Military  Forces         69 

country  has  been  apportioned  into  circles,  or  mon- 
thons,  which  are  not  necessarily  identical 

Military 

in  extent  and  limits  with  the  monthons     Territorial 

....  .     .       Organization. 

created  for  the  purpose  of  civil  adminis- 
tration. 

Within  the  area  of  these  monthons  the  men  are 
recruited,  drilled,  and  kept  under  normal  conditions 
to  serve  their  terms  with  the  colors. 

By  having  recourse  to  this  regional  system  of  en- 
listment, the  least  possible  inconvenience  is  caused 
to  the  men  themselves,  who  thus  enjoy  the  advantage 
of  performing  their  military  duties  near  their  own 
homes,  and  can  easily  return  to  the  labor  of  their 
fields  or  other  customary  occupations  during  the 
periods  in  which  their  presence  under  arms  is  not 
required. 

The  same  facilities  are  enjoyed  by  the  non-com- 
missioned officers  who  are  picked  from  the  ranks  and 
trained  at  a  special  school  established  for  them  in 
each  monthon,  whence  after  training  and  qualifica- 
tion by  an  examination  they  are  detailed  for  service 
to  the  corps  stationed  within  their  native  monthon. 

Since  last  year  (A.D.  1902)  the  infantry 

Armament 

has    been  armed  with  the  new  repeating  and 

Equipment. 

rifle  (model  R.  S.  121),  while  the  cavalry 
and  artillery  retained  the  Mannlicher  carbine. 


70  Kingdom  of  Siam 

The  field  artillery  ordnance  consists,  for  troops  in 
the  interior,  of  steel-bronze  /-cm.  mountain  guns 
only,  the  conditions  of  the  country  not  permitting, 
for  the  present,  the  use  of  a  heavier  ordnance.  For 
the  same  reason  the  employment  of  larger  bodies  of 
cavalry  becomes  impossible  over  the  greater  part 
of  the  country,  hence  the  task  of  the  cavalry 
must  remain  confined  to  reconnaissance  and  scout 
duty.  In  this  no  better  animal  could  meet  the  re- 
quirement than  the  local  wiry  and  hardy  little  pony. 
Accordingly  the  cavalry  is  mounted  exclusively  on 
native  ponies  and  armed  with  sabre  and  carbine,  so 
as  to  readily  do  also  work  on  foot,  and  the  use  of 
the  lance  has  been  proscribed.  For  the  artillery, 
elephants,  pack-bullocks,  and  boats  are  severally 
used,  according  to  the  character  of  the  country  to 
be  traversed.  The  clothing  and  accoutrements  of 
the  troops  follow,  on  the  whole,  Western  models, 
being  modified  in  detail  so  as  to  suit  local  condi- 
tions. Barrack  accommodation  on  improved  lines 
is  provided  both  at  Bangkok  and  in  the  various 
outer  monthons. 

Great  attention  has  been  paid  during  the  last  ten 
Military  years  or  so  to  this  most  essential  branch 
Education.  of  army  organization.  About  nine  tenths 
of  the  commissioned  officers  are  now  supplied 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSIT; 

OF 


Naval  and  Military  Forces          71 

by  the  Royal  Military  College,  and  only  about  one 
tenth  by  the  rank  and  file.  The  Royal  Military 
College,  installed  in  a  spacious  and  imposing  group 
of  buildings,  was  founded  as  early  as  1885,  but  it 
has  since  been  several  times  enlarged  and  generally 
improved.  It  now  accommodates  over  three  hun- 
dred cadets,  who  go  through  a  three-years  course 
of  training,  at  the  end  of  which  those  who  qualify 
at  a  final  examination  are  promoted  and  appointed 
to  the  various  corps.  A  preliminary  course  of  three 
years  is  also  provided  for  those  applicants  who  join 
the  college  before  possessing  the  necessary  qualifica- 
tion for  the  technical  course. 

The  Royal  Military  College  at  Bangkok  has  been 
an  important  factor  in  the  improvement  of  the 
standard  of  officers  in  the  army.  Over  three  fourths 
of  the  officers  now  on  active  service  have  been 
trained  there,  and  so  satisfactory  have  been  the  re- 
sults attained  that  there  is  a  great  and  continuous 
demand  for  these  officers  for  the  work  of  civil  ad- 
ministration. Many  of  the  officers  who  are  now  at 
the  head  of  the  various  departments  and  corps  of 
the  army  have  received  their  complementary  educa- 
tion and  military  training  in  Europe,  in  the  armies 
of  either  England,  Germany,  Austria,  or  Denmark. 
To  these  will  soon  be  added  a  small  yearly  supply 


72  Kingdom  of  Siam 

from  those  cadets  who  have  won  scholarships  and 
are  now  receiving  their  military  training  abroad,  so 
that  the  standard  of  officers  in  the  army  will  keep 
continuously  improving.  Of  the  special  schools  for 
non-commissioned  officers  mention  has  already  been 
made.  There  are  now  three  such  establishments  in 
full  order  in  the  military  monthons  of  Bangkok, 
Korat,  and  Rajburi,  aggregating  a  total  of  some 
three  hundred  pupils.  Other  similar  institutions  are 
being  created  in  each  of  the  newly  formed  monthons. 
His  Majesty  the  King  is  the  supreme  head 
of  all  forces.  The  army  is  immediately  controlled 
Headquarters  by  a  General  Commander-in-Chief,  with 
an  Assistant  General.  The  Headquarters 
Staff  is  organized  into  three  administrative  branches, 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Chief  of  the  General 
Staff,  the  Adjutant-General,  and  the  Quartermaster- 
General,  respectively.  Besides  the  above-named 
principal  officers,  there  is  an  Inspector-General, 
whose  function  is  to  inspect  all  His  Majesty's  forces. 
The  Army  Headquarters  are  located  in  a  spacious 
building  near  the  centre  of  Bangkok  City.  On  the 
same  premises  is  also  installed  the  Ministry  of  War 
and  Marine,  on  which  the  army  depends  mainly  for 
administrative  purposes,  as  well  as  for  the  supply 
of  both  men  and  war  material. 


Naval  and  Military  Forces          73 

The  army  as  it  stands  will  be  quite  sufficient  for 
ordinary  purposes,  which  are  chiefly  the  maintenance 
of  order  and  security  in  the  outlying  dis-  strength  of 
tricts,  and  ability  to  cope  with  any  even- 
tual rising  of  unruly  alien  elements  whether  in  the 
capital  or  in  the  interior  of  the  country. 

THE  ROYAL  NAVY 

The  Naval  Yard  and  Arsenal  are  situated  in 
Bangkok,  on  the  west  side  of  the  river  opposite  the 
royal  palace. 

The  dockyard  contains  the  Admiralty  and  Ad- 
ministrative offices,  also  barracks  for  the  men, 
drilling  grounds,  and  artillery  park;  a  drydock  able 
to  dock  the  largest  ships  of  the  navy,  also  patent 
slips,  workshops,  iron  and  brass  foundries,  carpen- 
ters' and  sailmakers'  shops,  etc. ;  two  shear-legs  of 
different  lifting  capacities,  and  all  necessary  appli- 
ances for  the  fitting  out  and  repair  of  the  ships  of 
the  navy. 

The  naval  education  is  carried  on  in  three  schools : 
the  Naval  Cadet  school,  the  Marine  Officers'  school, 
and  the  Petty  Officers'  school. 

The  engineers  receive  part  of  their  education  in 
the  Naval  Cadet  school. 

The  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  Navy  is,  at  pres- 


74 


Kingdom  of  Siam 


ent,  the  Minister  for  War,  Admiral  Prince  Bhanur- 
angsi. 

Chief  of  the  Staff,  Captain  Prince  Abhakara. 

PRINCIPAL  SHIPS  OF  THE  NAVY 


NAME  OF  SHIP 

DISPLACEMENT 
(Tons) 

H 

CL, 

> 

H 

PH* 

a 

a 

H 

• 
E 
c« 

z 

!D 

o 

| 

H 

Maha  Chakrkri  

3,000 
700 
700 
580 
580 
53° 
45° 
250 

"5 
290 

200 
134 

1,000 

Cruiser 
Gunboat 

Despatch 
n 
Training 
Vessel 
(sail) 

2,800 
560 

535 
500 
500 
500 

255 
140 
190 
1  80 
171 

100 

i4K 

12 

10 
H/^ 
"^ 
II}^ 

9 
7 
9 
9 

10 

8 

16 
8 

9 

10 

10 

9 
5 
3 

i 

4 

S. 

s. 

S. 

s. 
s. 
s. 
w. 

Comp. 
W. 

w. 

Comp. 
W. 

W. 

Ran  Rook 

Bali 

Sugrib           

Yong  Yot  

Han  Hak  Sakru  

Prap  Parapaks  
Uthai  Rajakit 

Besides  these  ships  the  navy  possesses  two  trans- 
ports, two  yachts,  various  despatch  and  river  ves- 
sels, steam  launches,  fire  engines,  and  one  spar 
torpedo-boat,  in  all  seventy-one  vessels. 


GENDARMERIE 


Outside  the  capital  and  the  surrounding  province 
the  country  is  policed  by  the  gendarmerie.  This  is 
a  body  of  military  police  at  the  head  of  which  is  a 


Naval  and  Military  Forces          75 

military  officer,  as  Inspector-General,  acting  directly 
under  the  orders  of  the  Ministry  of  Interior.  Most 
of  the  force  are  mounted,  and  all  are  drilled  on  mili- 
tary lines,  special  attention  being  paid  to  skirmishing 
and  shooting.  There  are  numerous  stations  scat- 
tered over  the  country,  which  serve  as  centres  for 
the  prevention  and  suppression  of  crime. 

From  each  station  patrols  are  sent  out,  chiefly 
during  the  night,  who  report  themselves  to  the  civil 
officials  of  each  district,  to  whom  they  hand  over  any 
lawbreakers  they  have  arrested,  and  receive  informa- 
tion of  any  crime  committed  in  the  district. 

The  force  possesses  a  training  school  for  its  officers, 
but  the  men  are  trained  at  the  stations. 

The  force  is  recruited  in  some  provinces  by  volun- 
tary enlistment  and  in  some  by  conscription. 

The  present  strength  of  the  force  is:  non-com- 
missioned officers  and  men,  6000 ;  officers,  150; 
chief  stations,  250. 

The  cost  of  the  whole  force,  including  school  for 
officers,  is  over  2,500,000  ticals. 

THE   PUKET  FORCE 

Puket,  the  centre  of  the  tin-mining  industry,  has 
a  separate  police  force,  which  is  solely  responsible  to 
the  Minister  of  the  Interior  and  the  High  Commis- 


76  Kingdom  of  Siarn 

sioner  of  the  monthon.  The  sanctioned  strength, 
consisting  of  twelve  officers  and  531  men  is  com- 
posed of  Siamese  and  Malays,  and  distributed  as 
required  amongst  the  six  provinces  which  comprise 
the  Puket  monthon. 

The  force  is  both  a  military  and  civil  one,  and  was 
reorganized  at  the  beginning  of  1900.  One  of  the 
chief  features  in  the  reorganization  was  the  training 
of  young  Siamese  police  officers ;  selected  men  were 
sent  to  Rangoon  for  a  six-months  course  of  police 
training  and  drill  with  the  Rangoon  police;  they 
took  every  advantage  of  the  opportunity  afforded 
them  and  obtained  certificates  of  efficiency. 

The  whole  force  is  armed,  and  great  interest  is 
taken  in  musketry.  There  is  a  rifle  range,  where 
target  practice  is  held  periodically  and  rewards  given 
for  good  shooting. 

The  force  has  a  mounted  detachment  at  head- 
quarters; they  are  chiefly  used  for  patrolling,  and 
escorting  high  officials  when  on  tour  of  inspection. 

Crime  is  very  slight  throughout  the  monthon. 


CHAPTER  V 
SIAM  FROM  AN  HISTORICAL  STANDPOINT 


77 


CHAPTER   V 

SIAM    FROM    AN   HISTORICAL  STANDPOINT, 
BY  DR.  O.  FRANKFURTER,  SIAMESE  FOREIGN  OFFICE 

LITTLE  is  known  about  the  early  history  of  the 
country  which  was  first  called  Siam  by  the 
Portuguese  and,  following  them,  by  the  other  nations 
who  first  came  into  contact  with  it.  The  name  has 
become  more  general  during  the  last  few  reigns, 
perhaps  through  a  mistaken  etymology  by  derivation 
from  cyama,  blue-black.  This  derivation  is  inade- 
quate with  regard  to  the  complexion  of  the  people 
and  to  the  soil,  to  which  it  is  equally  inapplicable. 

Siemlo,  the  Chinese  name,  is  of  equally  doubtful 
etymology,  and  by  the  neighboring  countries,  such 
as  Burmah  and  Cambodia,  the  country  was  called, 
after  the  name  of  its  former  capital,  Sri  Ayuddhya. 

The  Siamese  call  themselves  Thai,  probably  the 
equivalent  of  Franks,  the  free  ones,  /.  ^.,  free  from 
the  foreign  (Cambodian)  yoke. 

We  find  also  in  some  chronicles  the  well-known 

79 


8o  Kingdom  of  Siam 

Indian  term,  Suvarnabhumi  (golden  country),  so 
that  it  shares  with  other  countries  the  honor  of  be- 
ing called  the  Golden  Chersonese  or  Chryse. 

The  chief  source  of  the  earliest  history  is  found 
in  the  Phongsawadan  Muang  Nua  (the  Annals  of  the 
North).  The  facts  related  therein  are  to  a  great 
extent  correct,  but  as  these  annals  have  been  com- 
piled from  various  fragments  without  much  dis- 
crimination, and  as,  moreover,  the  data  given  in  these 
annals  cannot  be  reconciled,  they  can  only  be  used 
as  throwing  a  general  light  on  the  history  of  Siam. 

Besides  these  Annals  of  the  North,  there  are  local 
annals,  some  written  in  Pali,  some  in  Siamese  or 
Laosian,  which  also  throw  a  certain  light  on  pre- 
Buddhistic  times. 

None  of  these  chronicles,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Annals  of  the  North,  have  as  yet  been  printed. 
The  great  difficulty  met  with  is  the  use  of  the  eras. 
As  is  well  known,  there  were  three  eras  in  common 
use — the  Buddhist  era  dating  from  543  B.C.,  the 
Maha  Sakarat  era  dating  from  78  A.D.,  and  the 
Chula  Sakarat  dating  from  638  A.D.,  while  at 
the  present  time  the  Gregorian  Calendar  has  been 
adopted,  the  era  in  use  dating  from  the  foundation 
of  the  present  capital  in  A.D.  1781. 

In  these  old  chronicles  the  eras  were  frequently 


THE  MENAM  RIVER 


From  an  Historical  Standpoint      81 

changed  for  what  may  be  called  local  eras,  and  un- 
fortunately the  Buddhist  era,  the  only  real  fixed 
one,  has  never  been  adopted  throughout  in  any  of 
the  countries. 

In  the  earliest  times,  before  the  capital  was  estab- 
lished at  Ayuthia  in  1350,  there  extended  throughout 
the  country  a  number  of  small  principalities.  These 
extended  over  what  is  now  called  Siam,  from  the 
borders  of  China  east  and  west  through  the  valleys 
of  the  Menam  Chow  Phya  and  the  Menamkong  and 
down  the  Malay  Peninsula,  with  Ligor  as  capital,  as 
far  south  as  Malacca. 

These  principalities  were  bound  together  by  race, 
language,  religion,  and  customs,  but  did  not  form  a 
political  entity  or  state,  though  standing  in  com- 
mercial relations  with  one  another.  Frequently  the 
dominions  of  a  prince  were  extended  by  marriage 
and  frequently  they  were  subdivided  by  the  laws 
governing  succession. 

The  early  history  of  the  race  shows  a  continual 
migration  from  the  north  to  the  south,  seeking  an 
outlet  to  the  sea,  successive  sections  pressing  in 
those  that  had  gone  before  until  in  1350  the  branch 
of  the  Tai  race  known  now  as  the  Siamese  estab- 
lished their  capital  at  Ayuthia. 

The  history  of  the  Siamese  as  a  dominant  power 

6 


82  Kingdom  of  Siam 

begins  from  this  date,  for  at  that  time  twenty  of  the 
minor  principalities  to  the  north,  east,  and  west,  and 
four  to  the  south,  owed  allegiance  to  Ayuthia,  send- 
ing as  a  token  the  customary  gold  and  silver  flowers, 
and  the  oath  of  allegiance  was  taken  by  Pitsanu- 
loke,  Sajjanalai,  Sukothai,  Nakon  Sri  Thammarat 
(Ligor),  Rachasima  (Korat),  Tenaserim,  and  Tavoy. 

From  the  founding  of  the  capital  at  Ayuthia  in 
1350  down  to  its  destruction  in  1767  by  the  Burmese, 
its  history  is  chiefly  to  be  found  in  Phongsawadan 
Krung  Kao,  or  the  Annals  of  Ayuthia ,  in  which  is 
related  the  reigns  of  thirty-six  kings,  commencing 
with  the  reign  of  Phra  Chao  Utong,  and  ending  with 
the  reign  of  Krom  Khun  Anurat  Montri,  during 
whose  reign  Ayuthia  was  destroyed  by  the  Burmese. 

The  history  is  written  without  preconceived 
ideas,  and  although  it  is  a  compilation  only  made 
in  the  middle  of  the  last  century  by  Somdet  Pra 
Paramamijit,  it  gives  a  very  fair  account,  and  many 
of  its  facts  are  corroborated  by  the  chronicles  of 
neighboring  countries  and  the  description  given  by 
foreign  travellers. 

There  is,  however,  not  always  a  right  proportion 
in  details,  and  while  some  reigns  are  detailed  at  in- 
ordinate length  others  are  dismissed  in  a  few  words. 
It  goes  without  saying  that  the  inner  connection  of 


From  an  Historical  Standpoint      83 

the  facts  related  is  not  always  made  clear  inasmuch 
as  the  source  from  which  the  compilation  was  made 
proved  inadequate. 

The  history  of  the  Siamese  during  these  years 
shows  their  efforts  to  consolidate  their  political 
power,  by  which  they  roused  the  jealousy  of  the 
neighboring  countries  who  were  striving  for  the 
same  end.  The  inevitable  result  was  war,  and 
the  dependent  states  were  compelled  to  vary  their 
allegiance  and  submit  to  the  victorious  power. 

These  attacks  finally  culminated  in  the  destruction 
of  Ayuthia  by  the  Burmese  and  its  abandonment 
by  the  Siamese  as  a  capital. 

The  nearer  to  our  own  times,  the  more  exact  and 
explicit  the  history  proves  to  be;  the  chronicles  as 
related  by  Somdet  Pra  Paramamijit  breaks  off  with 
the  reign  of  Khun  Hluang  Tak,  who,  after  the  de- 
struction of  Ayuthia,  collected  the  shattered  forces 
of  the  Siamese  Army  and  eventually  re-established 
the  dominion,  founding  his  capital  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Menam  Chow  Phya  at  Bangkok. 

After  the  deposition  of  this  monarch  who  became 
mentally  deranged,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  first 
king  of  the  present  dynasty,  we  have  the  Annals  of 
Bangkok.  These  annals  were  compiled  from  original 
sources  by  the  late  Chow  Phya  Thipakarawongse. 


84  Kingdom  of  Siam 

The  modern  history  of  Siam  may  be  considered 
to  begin  under  King  Mongkut  (1851-1868),  when 
Siam  entered  into  treaties  with  foreign  powers  grant- 
ing the  rights  of  exterritoriality  to  their  subjects, 
and  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal  brought  the  na- 
tions of  the  West  into  closer  contact  with  those  of 
the  Orient. 

With  the  opening  of  the  Canal  the  attention  of 
the  Western  nations  was  turned  towards  the  East, 
and  it  was  through  their  colonial  expansion  that, 
indirectly,  a  large  influence  was  brought  to  bear  on 
the  development  of  the  country. 

Besides  these  annals,  the  attention  of  those  inter- 
ested in  the  history  of  the  country  should  be  called 
to  the  collection  of  the  laws  of  Siam,  made  in  the 
year  1807  by  a  commission  appointed  by  King  Phra 
Buddha  Yot  Fa,  and  since  1872  frequently  reprinted ; 
the  absence  of  a  proper  chronology  is,  however, 
much  to  be  deplored.  Nevertheless  a  careful  study 
of  these  laws,  taken  in  conjunction  with  the  facts  re- 
lated in  the  annals,  would  probably  be  instrumental 
in  constructing  an  authoritative  history  of  the  last 
six  hundred  years  both  from  an  historical  and  intel- 
lectual standpoint. 

Another  source  of  the  history  of  Siam  are  the 
local  chronicles  regarding  the  origin  of  the  more 


A  TEMPLE 


From  an  Historical  Standpoint      85 

famous  statues  of  the  Buddha;  an  archaeological 
survey  would  also  perhaps  throw  a  welcome  light 
on  its  history,  whilst  the  chronicles  of  the  neighbor- 
ing countries  of  Annam,  Burmah,  Pegu,  and  Cam- 
bodia would  elucidate  the  more  obscure  points. 
The  description  of  early  travellers  and  residents 
should  also  not  be  neglected,  though  scarcely  any 
of  them  are  free  from  a  certain  bias. 

This  is  more  especially  the  case  with  regard  to  the 
narratives  of  the  French  travellers  who  visited  Siam 
in  the  seventeenth  century  a  most  interesting  period 
of  its  history.1 

The  descriptions  of  modern  travellers  from  the 
last  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  are  written  under 
preconceived  ideas  and  inadequate  knowledge  and 
may  be  disregarded  by  any  one  who  undertakes  a 
serious  study  of  Siamese  history. 

Happily  we  have  for  the  last  two  reigns  the 
official  gazette  in  which  everything  of  importance  is 
chronicled  and  the  laws  by  which  the  country  is 
governed  are  promulgated.  This  forms  an  adequate 
source  of  the  history  of  Siam  in  latter  years.3 

1  Cp.  Lanier,  Etude  historique  sur  les  relations  de  la  France  et  du 
royaume  de  Siam  de  1662-1703,  Versailles,  1823  ;  Anderson, 
English  Intercourse  with  Siam  in  the  Seventeenth  Century,  London, 
1890. 

^Cp.  Satow,  Essay  towards  a  Bibliography  of  Siam,  Singapore,  1886. 


CHAPTER  VI 

LANGUAGE  OF  SIAM 


CHAPTER   VI 

LANGUAGE    OF    SIAM,     BY    DR.     O.     FRANKFURTER, 
SIAMESE    FOREIGN    OFFICE 

THE  Tai  family  of  language  to  which  Thai, 
the  language  of  the  people  of  Siam,  belongs, 
is  spoken  with  slight  but  well-defined  phonetic 
differentiations,  east  from  the  frontier  of  Thibet 
and  south  from  the  Chinese  frontier,  through  the 
whole  valley  of  the  Menam  Chow  Phya  (Siamese) 
down  to  Songkla  (Singora),  in  the  Malay  Peninsula, 
and  west  from  the  frontiers  of  Annam,  Tonquin, 
Cochin  China,  and  Cambodia.  The  characters  in 
which  these  languages  are  written  are  derived  from 
Indian  alphabets,  and  their  affinity  with  those  in 
which  Cambodian,  Burmese,  and  Peguan,  and  the 
language  of  the  continent  of  India  and  of  Ceylon  are 
written  can  be  easily  traced.  It  is  clear  that  the 
forms  of  the  characters  were  influenced  by  the  ma- 
terial used  in  writing  (copper  plates,  stone,  palm 
leaves,  paper  written  by  stiles,  chisels,  brushes). 

89 


go  Kingdom  of  Siam 

The  alphabets  are  akin  to  those  of  Sanskrit  and 
Pali, — syllabic. 

The  affinity  of  the  Tai  group  with  other  languages 
is  not  certain,  but  there  is  no  connection  with  the 
Mon-Annam  group  or  the  Malayan  family. 

The  character  of  the  language  is  that  of  a  tonal 
one.  There  are  five  tones  in  the  language,  but 
differentiation  of  meaning  is  not,  as  a  rule,  expressed 
in  the  same  word  by  tones.  These  tones  are  known 
as  the  tonus  rectus,  circumflexus,  demissus,  gravis, 
altus  (Pallegoix,  Grammatica  Linguce  Thai),  and 
their  pronunciation  is  roughly  indicated  by  their 
nomenclature,  most  of  the  words  are,  however,  pro- 
nounced in  the  tonus  rectus. 

The  unit  of  speech  is  the  sentence,  and  conse- 
quently there  are  no  distinct  words  for  the  different 
parts  of  speech,  as  practically  any  word  according  to 
the  context  in  which  it  occurs  may  perform  the 
function  of  verb,  noun,  adjective,  pronoun,  etc. 

In  the  sentence  the  determinating  word  follows 
the  determined  word,  contrary  to  the  invariable  rule 
of  Chinese,  where  the  determinating  word  precedes 
the  determined  word. 

Loan  words  and  especially  abstract  terms  are 
mostly  derived  from  Sanskrit  and  Pali,  although  of 
course  the  words  of  commodities  introduced  through 


Language  of  Siam  91 

intercourse  with  European  nations  are  derived  from 
European  languages.  Thus  we  have  derived  from 
Portuguese,  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries, 
for  instance,  the  words  for  paper,  bread,  soap, 
cloth.  In  the  same  way,  commodities  of  Chinese 
origin  are  designated  by  Chinese  words,  such  as 
terms  for  ships  and  furniture,  etc. 

In  more  modern  times,  loan  words  for  European 
commodities  were  derived  from  the  English,  but 
now  there  is  a  marked  tendency  to  employ  words 
for  new  commodities  from  the  stock  already  existing 
or  to  derive  them  from  Sanskrit  or  Pali  words. 

It  goes  without  saying  that  in  the  frontier  districts 
we  find  the  influence  of  the  bordering  language  and 
consequently  loan  words  from  Annam,  Cambodia, 
Burmah,  China,  etc.1 

1  Diguel,  Etude  de  la  langue  Tai,  Hanoi,  1895. 
Frankfurter,  Elements  of  Siamese  Grammar,  Leipzig,  1900. 
Lorgeou,  Grammaire  Siamoise,  Paris,  1902. 


CHAPTER  VII 

RELIGION  OF  SIAM 


93 


CHAPTER   VII 

RELIGION     OF     SIAM,     BY    DR.     O.     FRANKFURTER, 
SIAMESE    FOREIGN    OFFICE 

THE  religion  of  the  state  is  Buddhism,  while  all 
other  religious  creeds  are  granted  full  liberty 
of  worship,  nor  are  their  followers,  by  virtue  of  their 
creed,  prevented  from  occupying  any  secular  office 
under  the  administration  or  disabled  in  any  other 
way. 

The  king  is  the  highest  "supporter  of  the  doc- 
trine," and  stands  at  the  head  of  the  religion,  and 
in  consequence  of  this  position  a  spiritual  hierarchy 
has  developed  which  corresponds  in  many  ways  to 
the  position  of  the  temporal  hierarchy.  The  king 
appoints  all  ecclesiastical  dignitaries,  and  they  as 
well  as  all  other  priests  and  monks  are,  with  regard 
to  their  temporal  affairs,  under  the  Ministry  of 
Public  Worship. 

First  in  the  hierarchical  order  are  the  four  Somdet 
Phra  Chow  Rajagana  (archpriests),  who  stand  at  the 

95 


96  Kingdom  of  Siam 

head  of  different  assemblies  of  priests  and  monks. 
From  among  these  four  dignitaries  the  king  appoints 
the  Somdet  Phra  Sangharaja  (prince  of  priests),  who, 
as  his  title  implies,  is  the  head  of  the  entire  ecclesi- 
astical order.  The  whole  kingdom  is  divided  among 
these  four  dignitaries,  of  whom  there  is  one  for  the 
northern  division,  one  for  the  southern,  one  for  the 
sect  of  the  Dhammayutika,  and  one  for  the  hermits. 
The  Dhammayutika  are  a  sect  formed  under  King 
Mongkut,  with  the  aim  of  bringing  the  doctrine  in 
outward  matters  (initiation  into  the  priesthood, 
dress,  etc.)  more  in  accordance  with  the  pristine 
teachings;  whilst  the  archpriest  appointed  for  the 
hermits  (of  whom  there  are  not  very  many  now), 
i.  e.,  those  living  in  secluded  places,  follows  the  king 
into  the  province.  These  archpriests  receive  from 
the  king,  just  as  the  highest  officials  of  state,  gold 
or  silver  tablets  recording  their  titles.  Next  in  the 
hierarchical  order  are  the  five  high-priests  to  assist 
the  archpriests,  and  after  them  fourteen  dignitaries 
in  whose  official  titles  the  words  Dhamma,  Raja, 
Deva  enter.  In  the  hands  of  these  twenty-three 
priests  lies  the  supervision  of  the  doctrine  in  all  re- 
spects. Then  follows  an  official  list  of  twelve  gurus 
(teachers)  who,  as  their  title  implies,  are  to  assist  in 
teaching  the  doctrine.  These  also  receive  their 


Religion  of  Siam  97 

official  appointment  from  the  king,  whilst  other 
gurus  or  teachers  are  appointed  by  the  archpriests, 
corresponding  in  this  respect  to  civil  officials  who 
receive  their  appointments  from  the  hands  of  the 
responsible  minister. 

These  gurus  can  be  appointed  heads  of  temples, 
and  sometimes  the  title  is  bestowed  on  them,  as  the 
recognition  of  special  service  rendered  in  scholarship, 
as  an  honorary  degree.  The  priests  next  in  rank 
are  those  who  hold  official  positions  or  are  appointed 
to  a  certain  office  under  the  archpriests,  the  high- 
priests,  the  heads  of  temples,  so  that  their  official 
position  only  lasts  as  long  as  the  superior  who  has 
appointed  them  holds  his  office.  They  are  entrusted 
with  the  ritual,  and  act  as  judges  and  arbiters  in 
cases  of  discipline.  A  numerous  class  of  priests  are 
formed  by  the  "Barien  "  scholars,  who  receive  their 
title  after  having  passed  an  examination  in  Pali,  in 
the  sacred  books,  and  in  the  commentaries.  There 
are  nine  steps  in  these  examinations  and  they  must 
be  taken  one  after  the  other.  They  are  entitled  to 
the  epithet  "Maha"  (eminent)  before  their  own 
names,  but  they  hold  no  official  position  in  the 
government  ecclesiastical  service,  although  from 
their  ranks  the  officials  are  mostly  recruited;  they 
also  receive  a  "fan"  as  a  mark  of  honor  from  the 


98  Kingdom  of  Siam 

king.  The  Acariya  are  those  who  make  a  study  of 
the  outward  manifestation  of  the  religion,  and  their 
services  are  required  in  connection  with  royal 
festivals ;  they  may  receive  an  official  title.  As  the 
last  rank  of  the  priests  we  have  to  mention  those 
priests  engaged  in  attending  to  private  ceremonies 
not  held  in  the  temples. 

The  term  ' '  monk"  may  be  applied  to  the  large  class 
of  persons  living  in  the  temples  without  any  official 
rank  and  engaged  more  or  less  earnestly  in  the  study 
of  the  sacred  writings  or  in  meditation.  It  is,  more- 
over, an  essential  part  of  the  education  of  a  Siamese, 
when  he  has  completed  his  twentieth  year,  to  enter 
a  temple  for  a  time.  Many  of  the  Siamese  while 
still  boys  of  fourteen  or  fifteen  also  enter  as  novices 
(Samaneras]  for  a  short  period,  in  the  upper  classes 
usually  from  six  months  to  a  year.  This  custom, 
however,  is  not  so  universal  as  their  entering  as 
priests  when  grown  up.  There  is  no  restriction 
placed  on  a  priest  as  to  the  duration  of  his  stay  in 
the  priesthood,  but  while  a  monk  he  has  strictly  to 
obey  the  rules  of  the  order. 

The  initiation  generally  takes  place  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  rainy  season  (full  moon  of  the  eighth 
month,  /.  e.,  July),  and  is  always  accompanied  by  a 
festival.  It  forms  the  conclusion  of  the  education. 


>^TB  R  A 

f  OF  THE 

(  UNIVERSITY 
\  of 


Religion  of  Siam  99 

This  initiation  and  service  in  the  priesthood  is  of 
special  importance  to  the  princes  of  the  reigning 
house,  and  most  particularly  to  those  princes  in  the 
direct  line  of  succession,  for  the  king  as  temporal 
head  of  the  religion  must  have  shared  in  the  com- 
mon lot  of  the  followers  of  Buddha  in  order  that  he 
may  be  in  full  sympathy  with  their  feelings  and 
ideas,  and  the  great  reverence  in  which  the  priest- 
hood is  held  forms  a  firm  bond  between  the  highest 
and  the  lowest  in  the  land. 

It  can  thus  be  clearly  understood  that  the  priests 
are  under  the  strict  control  of  the  state.  From  it 
they  draw  their  power,  by  it  they  are  provided  with 
means  of  subsistence,  under  it  they  form  an  hier- 
archical order.  In  the  hands  of  the  priests  was 
from  the  olden  time  the  practical  and  religious  edu- 
cation of  the  people,  as  it  is  even  now  controlled  by 
the  Education  Department.  The  priests  are  to  a 
large  extent,  formerly  more  so  than  at  present,  the 
physicians  of  the  people,  and  they  certainly  also  help 
them  in  their  spiritual  needs. 

With  regard  to  the  tenets  of  Buddhism  as  prac- 
tised in  this  country,  it  can  only  be  said  that  it  is  the 
Buddhism  of  the  southern  school.  The  sacred  books 
contained  in  the  Tripitaka,  known  in  Ceylon  and 
Burmah,  are  likewise  known  in  Siam,  and  it  was  from 


ioo  Kingdom  of  Siam 

this  country  that  the  editio  princeps  was  issued  a 
few  years  ago.  Amongst  the  educated  classes, 
Buddhism  is  practised  in  its  pristine  purity,  while 
of  course,  just  as  elsewhere,  superstitious  practices 
have  crept  into  the  popular  belief.  Buddhism  in 
Siam  has  kept  clear,  however,  of  esoteric  influence, 
as  it  was  prevalent  a  few  years  ago  in  Ceylon  under 
European  influence ;  it  has  thus  kept  the  command 
forbidding  to  claim  or  to  aspire  to  supernatural 
power,  whilst  Nirvana  is  rightly  explained  as  the 
extinction  of  the  three  fires  of  lust,  hatred,  and  de- 
lusion. A  more  realistic  view  is  taken,  however, 
among  the  people,  who  believe  in  future  substantial 
states,  and  in  a  migration  of  souls  which  enter  new 
bodies  according  to  the  good  or  evil  deeds  per- 
formed in  this  world,  though  according  to  the  pris- 
tine teaching  it  is  only  the  deeds,  as  such,  that 
survive. 

This  may  perhaps  be  due  to  the  birth  stories 
which,  although  they  do  not  form  part  of  the  sacred 
writings,  are  well  known  in  Siam  as  in  other  Bud- 
dhist countries.  These  birth  stories  are  in  many 
cases  old  folklore  tales  which  were  used  to  illustrate 
a  verse  in  the  sacred  writings. 

With  regard  to  the  whole  doctrine  of  life  and 
death  as  presented  in  Buddhism,  we  will  quote  from 


Religion  of  Siam  101 

the  sermon  preached  by  Somdet  Pra  Vanarat  at  the 
memorial  service  of  the  late  Crown  Prince,  in  whose 
words  is  found  a  solution  of  the  whole  question  both 
with  regard  to  the  dead  and  the  living. 

"In  the  life  of  sentient  beings  there  is  no  cer- 
tainty. We  know  not  when  or  for  what  reasons  life 
will  be  extinguished.  No  one  is  able  to  guarantee 
existence ;  short  is  our  life  and  swiftly  are  we  ex- 
tinguished, and  our  sorrow  never  ceases.  As  the 
potter's  work  will  be  broken,  so  our  life  will  come 
to  an  end,  and  whether  children,  young  or  old, 
whether  foolish  or  wise,  all  fall  under  sway  of  death. 
We  may  speak  of  days,  months,  and  years;  but  we 
cannot  say  when  our  existence  will  come  to  an  end. 
No  one  is  spared,  whether  of  kingly  origin  or  a 
Brahmana,  whether  a  Vaisaya  or  a  Sudra,  whether 
of  the  lowest  caste  or  a  slave;  all  fall  under  the 
sway  of  death.  When  we  depart  from  one  existence 
to  another,  the  parents  cannot  protect  their  child, 
nor  will  the  love  of  the  kinsman  avail  aught  to  his 
kin;  the  lamentations  and  grief  over  the  departed 
do  not  benefit  him.  Death  is  the  natural  conse- 
quence of  existence,  and  our  life  is  like  that  of 
the  cow  which  the  Brahmana  leads  to  the  altar 
for  sacrifice.  Knowing  this,  what  will  lamenting 
over  the  departed  benefit  us?  The  dead  are  not 


102  Kingdom  of  Siam 

supported  by  our  grief.  The  dead  have  no  con- 
sciousness of  our  acts,  and  they  have  prepared  their 
existence  by  their  own  deeds.  Everything  is  sub- 
ject to  change,  although  we  may  think  it  permanent ; 
this  is  the  law  of  the  universe.  .  .  . 

"Thus  having  listened  to  the  words  of  the  Fully 
Enlightened  One,  we  know  that  the  dead  cannot 
come  to  life  again ;  therefore  let  us  cease  lamenting 
and  turn  our  attention  to  the  living,  so  that  the 
country  may  prosper;  work  for  the  living.  For 
such  is  the  work  of  the  living,  when  death  has  not 
yet  reached  them.  We  are  born  and  die,  this  is  the 
way  of  the  world ;  but  the  good  works  we  do  in  this 
world,  they  will  bear  fruit  in  future,  they  will  last." 

1  Cp.  Phra  Phachonwilat,  Tham  nieb  Samana  Sakdi  ("  The  Rank 
of  the  Priests  "),  Bangkok,  1902  ;  Kotmai  Phra  Songh,  Laws  Gov- 
erning the  Priesthood  in  Kotmai  7"hai,  vol.  ii.,  Bangkok  ;  Chow 
Phya  Thipakarawongse  Kinanukit,  translated  by  Alabaster,  Modern 
Buddhist,  London,  1870;  also,  Wheel  of  the  Law,  London,  1871. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  CAPITAL 


103 


CHAPTER   VIII 

THE  CAPITAL,    BY  THE   SECRETARY-GENERAL 

THE  capital  of  Siam  is  Bangkok,  situated  on  the 
river  Menam,  about  fourteen  miles  from  the 
sea,  though  owing  to  the  winding  of  the  stream  it 
is  about  twenty-five  miles  by  river.  It  is  a  most 
interesting  town  for  travellers,  and  their  number  in- 
creases year  by  year. 

Owing  to  the  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  ves- 
sels drawing  more  than  fourteen  feet  of  water  cannot 
come  up  to  the  town,  so  that  the  only  main  line  of 
steamers  which  calls  is  the  East  Asiatic  line  from 
Copenhagen  to  Shanghai ;  however,  there  are  almost 
daily  steamers  of  some  one  thousand  tons  to  Singa- 
pore and  Hong  Kong. 

The  main  portion  of  the  city  lies  on  the  east  side 
of  the  river,  though  the  west  side  is  thickly  popu- 
lated on  the  banks.  The  old  name  given  by  travel- 
lers to  this  town  was  "the  Venice  of  the  East,"  and 
fifty  years  ago  it  was  a  good  description ;  since  then 

105 


io6  Kingdom  of  Siam 

roads  have  been  made,  the  canals  have  been  bridged, 
and  electric  tramways  cross  the  city  in  various 
directions. 

Bangkok  is  the  chief  city  of  Siam  in  every  sense : 
it  is  the  chief  port,  the  chief  commercial  centre,  the 
centre  of  the  Government,  and  principal  residence  of 
the  king  and  royal  family. 

Unlike  most  other  Eastern  cities,  there  is  no  for- 
eign quarter,  but  the  European  houses  are  dotted 
about  the  city,  the  suburbs,  the  banks  of  the  river, 
and  the  busiest  part  of  the  town. 

The  nucleus  of  Bangkok  is  the  royal  palace,  situ- 
ated on  a  bend  of  the  river.  The  outer  walls  of  the 
palace  enclose  an  immense  area,  but  the  ground  de- 
voted to  the  actual  residence  and  garden  is  compara- 
tively small.  Within  the  walls  are  various  ministries, 
namely,  the  Foreign  Office,  the  Treasury,  the  Min- 
istry of  the  Interior,  the  Ministry  of  the  Household, 
and,  in  addition,  the  Royal  Library,  Legislative 
Council,  a  magnificent  Buddhist  temple,  barracks, 
etc.  Surrounding  the  palace  on  the  land  side  is  the 
city  proper,  formerly  surrounded  by  a  massive  em- 
battlemented  wall  and  pierced  by  lofty  gates.  Most 
of  the  wall  has  now  been  pulled  down,  and  a  boule- 
vard constructed,  and  of  the  gates  few  have  with- 
stood the  modern  desire  for  wide  roads.  Most  of 


The  Capital  107 

the  roads  are  macadamized,  drained,  and  planted 
with  trees,  and  many  of  the  sidewalks  are  protected 
from  the  sun  and  rain  by  lean-to  roofs  projecting 
from  the  houses.  Next  to  the  palace  is  a  large  open 
space  of  grass  of  an  oval  shape  surrounded  by  trees. 
This  is  the  Premane  ground,  formerly  used  for  the 
royal  cremations,  but  now  used  for  drilling  troops, 
kite-flying,  cricket,  foot-ball  matches,  and  golfing. 

Anchored  in  the  river,  between  the  palace  and  the 
naval  dockyard,  are  the  royal  yachts  and  such  of 
the  gunboats  as  are  not  cruising  in  the  gulf  or  con- 
veying troops  to  distant  parts  of  the  kingdom. 

From  the  palace  to  the  southeast  stretches  the 
New  Road,  the  oldest  of  the  roads  built  outside  the 
city.  Formerly  an  elephant  track  running  parallel 
to  the  river,  along  the  backs  of  the  houses  which 
faced  the  river,  it  now  passes  through  a  densely 
populated  quarter  and  is  the  busiest  road  in  the 
town.  Lined  on  both  sides  by  shops  for  some  three 
miles,  it  is  traversed  by  electric  trams  which  follow 
one  another  every  few  minutes,  while  carriages, 
jinrikishas,  bullock  carts,  and  native  omnibuses 
pass  in  a  perpetual  stream.  It  is  intersected  at 
right  angles  by  numerous  roads  leading  to  the  river, 
but  the  farther  it  gets  from  the  palace  the  less 
densely  populated  it  becomes,  and  after  passing 


io8  Kingdom  of  Siam 

through  the  rice-mill  district  it  ends  close  by  the 
abattoirs. 

From  the  Premane  ground  to  the  northeast 
stretches  the  finest  boulevard  in  Bangkok,  leading 
from  the  royal  palace  to  Dusit  Park,  a  private  resi- 
dence of  the  king.  It  is  not  quite  finished  yet 
within  the  city  walls,  but  the  section  from  the  city 
walls  to  Dusit  Park,  a  distance  of  over  a  mile,  is  now 
open.  This  boulevard  consists  of  three  carriage- 
ways, separated  from  one  another  by  double  lines  of 
trees  and  bordered  by  shady  footpaths. 

The  palace  is  surrounded  by  ornamental  gardens 
open  to  the  public,  and  the  whole  quarter  is  laid  out 
as  a  purely  residential  district,  the  houses  being  oc- 
cupied by  the  princes  and  noblemen  of  the  court. 
Between  this  quarter  and  the  river  runs  the  Samsen 
Road,  corresponding  to  the  New  Road  below  the 
palace,  but  far  less  densely  populated.  It  has  a 
good  service  of  electric  trams.  Running  between 
these  two  main  roads  are  many  subsidiary  roads; 
the  total  length  of  carriage  roads  being  some  one 
hundred  and  twenty  miles.  The  river  is  hardly  less 
crowded  than  the  New  Road.  Both  sides  for  miles 
above  and  below  the  palace  are  lined  by  floating 
houses,  most  of  which  are  occupied  by  traders,  who, 
taking  down  their  front  shutters,  wait  quietly  for 


The  Capital  109 

their  customers  to  arrive  in  boats  or  launches  and 
take  their  purchases  away  with  them.  These  houses 
consist  generally  of  several  rooms  and  are  supported 
on  pontoons;  the  row  is  only  broken  by  landing 
stages  and  the  mouths  of  canals.  Built  in  Siamese 
style,  with  the  curious  gable  characteristic  of 
Siamese  architecture,  they  form  one  of  the  unique 
and  interesting  sights  of  Bangkok. 

Down  the  middle  of  the  stream  are  anchored  the 
ocean-going  steamers  flying  the  flags  of  many  na- 
tions, sailing  boats  loading  teak  for  the  European 
and  American  markets,  whilst  in  and  out  and  from 
shore  to  shore  scurry  steam  launches  of  every  sort 
and  shape.  With  the  tide,  huge  rice-boats  bring 
the  harvest  to  the  rice-mills,  and  rafts  of  teak  logs, 
which  may  have  been  years  on  their  journey  from 
the  north,  follow  a  puffing  launch  which  has  picked 
them  up  above  the  city  to  tow  them  to  the  mill. 
Then  there  are  house-boats,  with  two  or  more 
rowers;  a  priest's  boat,  paddled  by  ten  of  his  pupils; 
boats  which  ply  for  hire  and  carry  eight  to  twelve 
passengers,  rowed  and  steered  by  one  man  like  a 
gondola;  tiny  canoes,  beyond  the  skill  of  Europeans 
to  manage,  holding  just  the  postman  and  his  bag  of 
mail,  or  perhaps  a  travelling  cook  who,  with  his  pot 
of  boiling  rice  on  a  little  stove  in  front  of  him  and 


1 10  Kingdom  of  Siam 

the  rest  of  his  cuisine  cunningly  stowed  around  him, 
drives  a  roaring  trade  with  the  boatmen  and  dwellers 
in  floating  houses,  dispensing  his  goods  with  the  one 
hand  and  keeping  the  boat  steady  with  the  other. 

A  noticeable  feature  in  the  river  life  is  the  water 
markets  at  certain  places  along  the  banks;  a  regular 
market  is  held  which  begins  soon  after  midnight  and 
lasts  till  seven  or  eight  in  the  morning. 

Both  buyers  and  sellers  are  chiefly  women.  The 
sellers  come  in  small  boats  bringing  fish,  eggs,  fruit, 
etc.,  which  they  have  themselves  grown,  and  one 
may  see  two  or  three  hundred  small  boats,  each 
with  its  little  lamp,  the  owners  talking  and  laughing 
with  their  neighbors.  Then  as  soon  as  the  sun  has 
risen  they  begin  to  return  home,  and  what  was  a 
busy  market  is  now  an  open  space  of  river. 

To  foreigners  the  most  interesting  things  to  be 
studied,  after  the  life  and  customs  of  the  inhabi- 
tants, are  the  royal  palace  with  its  surroundings  and 
the  numerous  Buddhist  temples. 

The  town  of  Bangkok  being  comparatively  modern 
(1782)  is  interesting  chiefly  on  account  of  its  up-to- 
dateness,  but  within  easy  reach  of  Bangkok  by  rail 
are  many  places  of  historic  interest  such  as  Ayuthia 
(the  old  capital),  Korat,  Rachburee,  Prapatom, 
Petchaburee,  etc. 


The  Capital  in 

The  population  of  Bangkok  is  estimated  at  five 
hundred  thousand  souls,  of  whom,  some  eight  to 
nine  hundred  are  Europeans  or  Americans.  Besides 
these,  the  foreign  element  includes  Chinese,  Japan- 
ese, Koreans,  Malays,  Javanese,  Hindus,  Klings, 
Pathans,  Afghans,  Burmese,  Arabs,  Cambodians, 
Annamites,  most  of  whom  are  rendered  conspicuous 
by  their  national  dress,  which  they  seldom  abandon. 
Owing  to  this  habit  of  retaining  their  national  dress, 
which  differentiates  them  from  the  rest  of  the  peo- 
ple, a  casual  observer  is  apt  to  overestimate  the 
foreign  population,  the  number  of  which,  excluding 
the  Chinese,  is  comparatively  small. 

The  Chinese  population,  by  the  returns  of  the 
poll-tax  in  1900,  was  65,345  male  adults,  and  the 
entire  estimated  Chinese  population,  allowing  for 
old  men,  women,  and  children,  who  pay  no  tax, 
85,500.  In  1903,  owing  to  exceptional  circum- 
stances, the  number  rose  to  100,000. 

Bangkok  is  the  terminus  of  four  lines  of  railway. 
It  has  a  fine  service  of  electric  trams,  and  is  well  lit 
by  electricity.  It  possesses  one  of  the  finest  race- 
courses in  the  East,  a  United  Club,  open  to  all 
nationalities,  a  Siamese  Club,  a  German  Club,  a 
Golf  Club,  and  a  Sports  Club,  several  European- 
managed  hotels,  three  banks,  a  French  hospital,  and 


ii2  Kingdom  of  Siam 

a  British  nursing  home,  English,  French,  Danish, 
German,  and  American  doctors,  besides  numerous 
Siamese  hospitals  and  medical  men.  The  climate 
and  rainfall  are  those  of  Lower  Siam.  Further  de- 
tails and  statistics  relating  to  the  capital  will  be 
found  in  the  various  sections. 

THE  PORT  HEALTH  DEPARTMENT 

The  sanitary  service  of  the  port  of  Bangkok  is 
directly  under  the  control  of  the  Ministry  of  Local 
Government,  and  is  directed  by  the  Medical  Officer 
of  Health,  assisted  by  two  medical  boarding  officers, 
orderlies,  boatmen,  coolies,  and  a  large  staff  of  police 
told  off  specially  for  this  duty.  The  sanitary  sta- 
tions are  two  in  number:  one  at  the  island  of  Koh 
Phai,  some  thirty  miles  beyond  the  bar;  and  the 
other  at  the  customs  station  at  Paknam,  within  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Menam  Chow  Phya. 

At  Koh  Phai,  where  alone  sick  or  inspected  per- 
sons are  landed,  there  are,  besides  medical  officers' 
quarters,  hospital  quarters  for  Europeans  and  several 
large  barracks  capable  of  accommodating  fifteen 
hundred  Chinese  coolies.  Police  barracks,  coolies' 
quarters,  storerooms,  and  a  water-condensing  ap- 
paratus make  up  the  complement  of  equipment. 


The  Capital  113 

Throughout  the  year,  all  ships  from  Hong-Kong  or 
China  ports  are  medically  inspected  on  their  arrival. 
When  quarantine  is  declared  against  any  port,  a 
period  of  nine  days'  quarantine  is  enforced  and  in- 
spection takes  place  at  Koh  Phai. 

According  to  the  maritime  decree,  the  medical 
officer  may  board  and  examine  any  ship  arriving  in 
Siamese  waters  no  matter  whence  it  has  come,  and 
ships  which  have  already  obtained  pratique  are  still 
liable  to  control  within  the  port. 

During  the  past  year,  262  ships  were  inspected, 
and  35,028  passengers  were  medically  examined.  It 
may  be  interesting  to  record  that  although  plague  has 
every  year  assumed  epidemic  form  in  Hong-Kong, 
a  distance  of  seven  days'  steaming  from  Bangkok,  no 
cases  of  plague,  so  far  as  it  is  known,  have  got  beyond 
the  quarantine  station. 

THE  CATTLE  TRADE  AND  GOVERNMENT  ABATTOIRS 

A  considerable  export  of  cattle  from  Bangkok  to 
Singapore  takes  place  every  year.  In  Singapore  the 
smaller  animals  are  slaughtered  for  food,  while  the 
larger  cattle  are  sent  to  the  adjacent  Malay  and 
Dutch  states  for  draft  purposes. 

Owing  to  a  severe  and  widely  extended  epidemic 


1 14  Kingdom  of  Siam 

of  rinderpest  in  Siam  six  years  ago,  the  whole  sys- 
tem of  cattle  inspection  before  export  was  reorgan- 
ized. A  royal  decree  was  proclaimed  giving  to 
the  Medical  Officer  of  Health  full  control  over  the 
importation  of  cattle  into  the  port  of  Bangkok, 
their  detention  in  Bangkok,  and  the  manner  of 
export.  At  the  same  time  powers  were  given  deal- 
ing with  the  slaughter  of  cattle  for  food  and  with 
the  care  of  milk  cows  and  of  cowsheds  throughout 
the  town. 

A  large  piece  of  ground  was  purchased  of  the 
Government,  and  upon  it  were  erected  two  large 
sheds,  each  capable  of  accommodating  five  hundred 
head  of  cattle.  There  was  also  built  a  quarantine 
shed  capable  of  holding  two  hundred  sick  cattle, 
and  at  a  distance  of  three  hundred  metres  from  the 
main  sheds.  A  public  abattoir  was  also  erected,  of 
such  a  size  as  will  be  sufficient  for  all  needs  for  many 
years  to  come.  In  addition,  there  are  the  officers', 
inspectors',  and  coolies'  houses.  The  cattle  sheds 
are  floored  with  compressed  brick  pointed  in  cement, 
while  the  abattoir  is  floored  with  concrete  and  cement 
and  has  steel  and  iron  fittings. 

Cattle  can  only  be  landed  in  Bangkok  at  the  gov- 
ernment wharf  alongside  the  bullock  sheds.  This 
wharf  was  specially  built  to  enable  the  ordinary 


The  Capital  115 

trading  steamers  to  go  alongside  in  order  to  load 
the  bullocks. 

Although  rinderpest  has  practically  died  out,  foot- 
and-mouth  disease  is  almost  always  present  in  Siam. 
All  bullocks  are  therefore  subjected  to  eight  days' 
medical  observation  in  the  government  sheds  free 
of  rent.  They  are  then  slaughtered  for  food,  or,  as 
is  the  case  with  the  great  majority,  are  exported  to 
Singapore.  Before  being  passed  for  export  by  the 
customs  authorities,  each  owner  must  show  the  ex- 
port pass  from  the  Medical  Officer  of  Health  certify- 
ing that  the  cattle  have  been  quarantined  for  eight 
days  and  have  been  stamped  as  healthy. 

Slaughtering  oj:  animals  for  food  is  only  permitted 
in  the  'government  abattoir.  Each  animal  is  ex- 
amined when  alive,  and  the  flesh  is  again  examined 
before  being  allowed  to  be  taken  away  from  the 
abattoir,  when,  if  found  healthy,  it  is  stamped  with 
the  medical  officer's  seal.  The  flesh  of  a  bullock 
found  in  the  market  without  this  seal  is  presumed  to 
have  been  slaughtered  illegally  and  is  confiscated 
and  destroyed. 

The  dead  meat  is  transported  from  the  abattoirs 
to  the  butchers'  shops  in  a  specially  constructed 
electric  car  run  on  the  public  electric  tramway,  thus 
ensuring  prompt  and  clean  delivery. 


Kingdom  of  Siam 


The  following  figures  show  the  work  done  during 
the  past  year  at  the  cattle  station : 

Cattle  landed,  15,907;  exported,  8574;  slaughtered 
for  food,  6900. 


METEOROLOGY 


Daily  readings  of  temperature  and  rainfall  are 
taken  by  the  Medical  Officer  of  Health.  The  fol- 
lowing is  an  abstract  of  last  year's  readings  from  1st 
April,  1902,  until  3ist  March,  1903: 


MONTH 

M 

I 

£ 

H 

HIGHEST  TEMPERATURE 
RECORDED  IN  SHADE 
(Fahrenheit) 

H 

RAINFALL  IN  INCHES 

April           .  .        

86 

0,8 

2  07 

May  .  , 

85.8 

IO2 

73 

Tune      ....            

86  * 

IOO 

74 

2    QQ 

Tulv  . 

85. 

08 

73 

2  O4 

84.1 

08 

74 

6.QI 

September  

82  4 

Q7 

70 

16  64. 

October        

83. 

Q4 

73 

7  77 

November 

82    d. 

68 

I  4.Q 

December 

8l  2 

qc 

6q 

o  08 

80.6 

07 

58 

O.CK 

February  

80.7 

Q7 

66 

O.O3 

March                .    . 

86. 

IOI 

71 

Nil 

Annual  mean  temperature 


83.6 


Total  rainfall 46.47 


The  Capital  117 

DRAINAGE 

In  Bangkok  there  is  no  system  of  drainage  by 
closed  pipes  such  as  one  sees  in  European  countries. 
The  numerous  canals  which  intersect  the  city,  as  well 
as  the  deep  and  quickly  flowing  rivers,  are  the  main 
sewers  of  Bangkok.  These  are  flushed  daily  by  the 
rise  and  fall  of  the  tide,  the  influence  of  which  is  felt 
for  many  miles  above  the  city.  In  addition  to  these 
natural  drains,  side  drains  have  been  constructed 
by  the  Sanitary  Department  alongside  most  of  the 
streets.  Into  these  flow  the  flood  water  after  rain- 
fall, as  well  as  the  soiled  water  from  the  neighboring 
dwelling-houses.  Many  of  the  drains  have  now  been 
provided  with  sluice-gates  where  they  join  canals ; 
the  gates  are  opened  at  low  water,  and  thus  the 
drains  are  effectually  flushed,  the  cleansing  being 
assisted  by  sweepers.  These  drains  are  solidly  built 
brick  culverts  lined  with  cement,  and  with  man-holes 
every  four  metres  apart  to  enable  the  coolies  to 
cleanse  the  drains  more  easily. 

As  the  pail  system  of  conservancy  is  employed, 
nothing  but  bath,  kitchen,  and  surface  water  enters 
these  drains,  so  that  complaints  of  their  being  of- 
fensive are  not  so  frequent  as  might  be  imagined 
by  those  unaccustomed  to  such  an  open  system  of 
diainage. 


1 18  Kingdom  of  Siam 

REMOVAL   OF   HOUSE   REFUSE 

This  is  done  entirely  by  the  Sanitary  Department. 
Seven  bullock  carts  and  metal  hand-carts  are  used 
for  this  purpose,  and  by  aid  of  these  some  fourteen 
tons  of  refuse  are  carted  away  daily.  In  the  mean- 
time this  refuse  is  utilized  for  the  purpose  of  filling 
up  marshy  holes  in  and  about  the  city.  When 
enough  refuse  has  been  deposited,  a  layer  of  good 
soil  is  scattered  upon  the  surface  as  a  deodorant, 
and  in  a  year,  so  rapid  is  the  disintegration  of  all 
vegetable  refuse  in  this  climate,  it  is  found  that 
what  was  once  a  rubbish  heap  has  become  trans- 
formed into  innocuous  soil. 

It  is  proposed  to  erect  refuse  incinerators,  not  only 
to  destroy  the  ordinary  refuse,  but  also  to  desiccate 
the  night  soil  so  that  it  may  be  sold  as  a  fertilizer. 

PUBLIC   AND   PRIVATE   LATRINES 

Within  the  city  of  Bangkok  there  are  now  seventy- 
nine  public  latrines  with  a  total  of  361  rooms.  The 
bucket  system  is  employed  and  the  daily  changing 
of  these  is  given  out  to  contractors.  An  average  of 
three  thousand  buckets  of  one  gallon  capacity  are 
removed  daily  from  these  public  latrines  and  from 
private  houses.  The  night  soil  is  taken  first  to  a 


The  Capital  119 

central  depot,  it  is  there  emptied  into  barges  spe- 
cially built  for  the  purpose,  and  is  then  taken  away 
some  miles  beyond  the  limits  of  the  city  where  it  is 
buried. 

BANGKOK  REVENUE  DEPARTMENT 

This  department  collects  the  various  taxes  in  the 
province  of  Bangkok.  The  total  taxes  collected 
amounted  to  1,800,000  ticals. 

It  has  also  charge  of  the  Chinese  poll-tax,  which 
is  collected  every  three  years.  During  the  year 
1903,  the  tax  was  paid  by  nearly  one  hundred  thou- 
sand Chinese,  a  number  largely  in  excess  of  the  pre- 
vious collection.  This  increase  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  owing  to  competition  the  fare  from  China  was 
less  that  $i,  and  immense  numbers  took  advantage 
of  this  cheap  rate. 

THE   SANITARY   DEPARTMENT 

This  department  was  instituted  in  the  year  1897 
for  the  city  of  Bangkok.  The  department  is  under 
charge  of  the  Vice-Minister,  who  is  assisted  by 
directors  of  the  various  departments,  a  municipal 
engineer,  a  medical  officer  of  health,  and  numerous 
assistant  inspectors,  clerks,  etc. 

The  main  duties  of  this  department  are: 


i2o  Kingdom  of  Siam 

I.  The  construction  and  maintenance  of  the  roads 
and  bridges. 

II.  The  collection  and  disposal  of  all  refuse. 

III.  The  enacting  and  enforcing  of  regulations 
against  infectious  diseases  both  of  men  and  cattle. 
The  budget  of  the  department  amounted  last  year 
to  810,520  ticals  (£i  equals  17  ticals)  and  a  special 
allotment  of  229,120  ticals. 

The  only  revenue  derived  is  the  tax  on  bullocks 
slaughtered  in  the  government  abattoirs,  which 
amounted  to  ten  thousand  ticals.  The  annual 
amount  thus  spent  on  the  sanitation  of  the  city  by 
the  Government  amounted  to  1,111,064  ticals,  or 
over  ^"65,000. 

BANGKOK  POLICE,  BY  THE  COMMISSIONER  OF 
POLICE 

The  Bangkok  police  is  a  force  of  3580  officers  and 
men  of  the  following  ranks : 

Commissioner I 

Divisional  Superintendents 4 

Assistant  Divisional  Superintendents 8 

Chief  Inspectors 16 

Inspectors 23 

Head  Constables 45 

Sergeants 232 

Constables 3078 

Office  staffs 73 


The  Capital  121 

The  commissionership  extends  over  the  province 
of  Bangkok  and  also  includes  the  policing  of  all 
the  state  railways.  It  is  divided  into  four  districts : 
Bangkok  town ;  northern  suburbs ;  southern  sub- 
urbs; railway  district. 

The  force  is  composed  of  the  following  nationali- 
ties: Siamese,  3252;  Europeans,  8;  natives  of  In- 
dia, Hindus,  Pathans,  and  Sikhs,  320. 

The  force  is  recruited  from  all  parts  of  Siam,  en- 
listment being  particularly  popular  in  the  districts 
of  Korat  and  Lopburi,  large  numbers  of  Laos  from 
those  two  districts  joining  every  year.  Amongst 
the  native  of  India,  Pathans  largely  predominate. 
The  uniform  of  the  men  is  khaki  coat  and  pants, 
putties,  with  round  cap. 

In  the  town  district  the  cap  and  putties  are  dark 
blue,  in  both  the  suburbs  divisions  the  cap  and 
putties  are  khaki,  and  in  the  railway  district  the  cap 
is  khaki  and  the  putties  are  dark  green. 

The  uniform  of  the  officers  is:  full  dress — dark 
blue ;  undress — white  or  khaki. 

On  first  joining  the  town  force,  the  recruit  goes 
through  a  course  of  two  months'  training  at  the 
police  school.  He  is  there  taught  drill,  police  regu- 
lations, elementary  law,  and  reading  and  writing,  if 
not  already  able  to  read  and  write. 


122  Kingdom  of  Siam 

There  are  usually  about  1 80  recruits  under  training. 

The  officers  —  i.  e.,  head  constables  and  those 
above  that  grade — are  recruited  both  by  promotion 
from  the  ranks  and  by  special  enlistment. 

The  number  of  officers  promoted  from  the  ranks 
is  small.  In  the  case  of  special  enlistment  the 
officer  recruit  undergoes  a  training  which  varies 
from  six  to  ten  months,  according  to  circumstances. 
Whilst  under  training,  he  receives  a  small  allowance 
and  is  attached  to  a  station  under  the  supervision 
of  an  officer  of  experience  who  is  responsible  for  his 
training. 

In  the  system  of  administration  the  station  circle 
is  the  unit.  This  circle  necessarily  varies  greatly  in 
importance,  the  biggest  station  circle  having  one 
hundred  and  fifty  men  attached  to  it,  and  the 
smallest  twenty  men.  According  to  size  and  im- 
portance, the  stations  are  under  the  direct  command 
of  an  inspector  or  head  constable  or  sergeant.  The 
stations  are  grouped  together  in  a  series  of  chief  in- 
spectorships, each  group  being  under  a  chief  in- 
spector. These  again  are  grouped  into  subdivisions, 
each  subdivision  being  under  an  assistant  superin- 
tendent. The  subdivisions  are  grouped  into  divi- 
sions, each  under  a  divisional  superintendent,  and 
the  commissioner  supervises  the  whole. 


The  Capital  123 

The  duties  of  the  police  are  the  same  as  elsewhere, 
being  the  investigation  and  detection  and  suppression 
of  crime.  The  police  also  undertake  the  prosecution 
of  all  cases  reported  to  them  in  the  courts  of  first 
hearing.  They  also  supervise  the  pawnshops  and 
enforce  the  canal  regulations.  Permits  for  theatrical 
performances,  etc.,  are  issued  by  the  police,  and 
they  are  responsible  for  the  maintenance  of  good 
order  at  such  performances.  The  force  also  supplies 
watchmen  to  private  employers.  These  men  belong 
to  the  force  but  are  paid  for  by  the  employer.  The 
number  of  men  so  supplied  is  205. 

The  work  of  the  police  is  rendered  more  difficult 
by  the  very  large  number  of  courts. 

Owing  to  the  system  of  extra-territoriality,  each 
treaty  power  has  its  own  consular  court.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  ordinary  criminal  courts,  there  are  in 
Bangkok  ten  consular  courts,  each  having  a  different 
procedure  and  different  system  of  law. 

Another  of  the  difficulties  is  the  very  large  num- 
ber of  languages  spoken,  and  although  many  police 
officers  of  and  above  the  rank  of  head  constable  can 
speak  two  languages,  and  many  three  or  more,  it 
frequently  happens  that  a  complainant  is  quite  un- 
able to  make  himself  understood. 

In  addition  to  the  ordinary  police,  but  included 


124  Kingdom  of  Siam 

in  the  totals  already  given,  there  is  a  Special  Branch 
Police,  a  detective  force,  consisting  of  the  following: 

Assistant  Superintendent I 

Chief  Inspector I 

Inspectors 4 

Head  Constable I 

Sergeants 18 

Constables 90 

The  assistant  superintendent  in  charge  of  this 
branch  is  also  the  licensing  officer  of  pawnshops. 

Until  the  year  1901  there  was  no  supervision  of 
pawnshops.  Before  that  time  there  were  432  shops, 
all  of  which  habitually  acted  as  receivers  of  stolen 
property.  As  there  were  no  regulations  of  any  sort 
and  as  the  owners  were  under  very  many  different 
jurisdictions,  it  was  practically  impossible  to  suppress 
crime. 

In  April,  1901,  the  pawnshop  regulations  became 
law,  and  there  are  now  ninety-five  pawnshops  which 
are  under  strict  laws. 

Under  the  regulations,  all  forfeited  pledges  in 
pawnshops  are  examined  by  the  police  before  any 
can  be  sold,  and  are  compared  by  them  with  the  lists 
of  stolen  property.  For  facility  of  reference,  all 
property  is  divided  into  certain  classes,  and  the  de- 
scription of  each  kind  is  entered  in  the  appropriate 


The  Capital  125 

volume,  each  inspector  being  provided  with  a  com- 
plete set  of  volumes.  Every  morning  at  8  A.M.,  the 
description  of  all  property  stolen  during  the  previous 
twenty-four  hours  is  sent  to  the  Special  Branch,  the 
descriptions  are  entered  in  the  volumes  of  stolen 
property,  and  the  lists  are  then  printed  off  and  one 
copy  sent  to  every  pawnshop.  In  the  event  of  any 
pawnbroker  being  already  in  possession  of  any  of 
the  property  described  or  subsequently  receiving  it, 
he  is  obliged  under  heavy  penalties  to  report  the 
fact  to  the  nearest  station.  To  ensure  his  doing  so, 
the  examination  of  forfeited  pledges  already  de- 
scribed is  made.  Another  of  the  duties  of  the 
Special  Branch  is  the  identification  of  previously  con- 
victed offenders.  The  method  in  use  on  the  Bang- 
kok police  is  the  finger-print  method,  the  prints 
being  classified  by  Henery's  system.  The  bureau 
is  maintained  by  the  jail  department.  The  finger- 
prints of  every  man  arrested  for  serious  crime  are 
despatched  each  morning  to  the  bureau.  They 
are  there  examined,  and  in  those  cases  where  the 
offender  has  been  previously  convicted  his  former 
convictions  are  entered  on  a  form  which  is  taken 
to  the  court  and  attached  to  the  case  papers  before 
the  court  opens  for  the  day. 

The  finger-print  is  also  utilized  for  the  detection  of 


i26  Kingdom  of  Siam 

crime;  every  person  who  pawns  an  article  being  re- 
quired to  place  the  print  of  his  right  thumb  on  the 
pawn-ticket  counterfoil. 

In  those  numerous  cases  in  which  suspicion  has 
fallen  on  several  persons,  and  there  is  no  clear  proof 
against  any  of  them,  this  affords  a  very  valuable 
clue  to  the  police,  as  an  inspection  of  the  fingers  of 
the  suspected  reveals  who,  if  any  of  them,  was  the 
person  who  pawned  the  recovered  stolen  property. 

Although  the  system  has  been  in  force  for  only  a 
few  months,  it  has  already  resulted  in  the  detection 
and  conviction  of  many  offenders.  The  latest  avail- 
able criminal  statistics  are  for  the  year  ending  March 

3i,  I903- 

During  the  year,  viz.,  April  I,  1902,  to  March  31, 
1903,  12,137  cases  were  taken  up  by  the  police  on 
report. 

For  these  offences  11,409  persons  were  arrested, 
of  whom  5653  were  convicted. 

In  1191  cases  the  accused  were  allowed  to  com- 
pound with  the  complainants. 

Of  the  total  of  12,137,  3575  were  °f  a  petty 
nature,  being  cases  of  public  nuisance,  petty  assault, 
offences  against  canal  regulations,  etc. 

The  force  as  at  present  constituted  has  been  in 
existence  since  1897. 


CHAPTER  IX 

FINANCE 


127 


CHAPTER    IX 

FINANCE,  BY  THE  ACTING  FINANCIAL  ADVISER 

r  I  ^HE  budget  estimates  of  the  kingdom  of  Siam 
1  for  the  year  122  (April  i,  1903,  to  March  31, 
1904)  show  a  revenue  of  45,540,000  ticals,  an  ex- 
penditure of  45,499,365  ticals,  and  a  surplus  of 
40,635  ticals.  The  first  two  amounts  are  largely  in 
excess  of  those  for  the  previous  year,  and  represent 
an  advance  of  over  sixteen  per  cent,  on  the  esti- 
mates for  121  (1902-1903),  the  corresponding  totals 
of  which  amounted  only  to  39,000,000  ticals,  and 
38,971,271  ticals,  respectively.  This  increase  is  in 
keeping  with  the  progress  recorded  during  the  last 
twelve  years,  in  which  period  the  public  revenue 
and  expenditure  of  the  country  have  nearly  trebled, 
as  will  be  seen  from  the  figures  below : 


Year  Receipts  Expenditures 

(Ticals)  (Ticals) 

111  (1892-93) 15,378,114 14,918,977 

112  (1893-94) 17,389,672 18,174,504 

I29 


130  Kingdom  of  Siam 

Year  Receipts  Expenditures 

(Ticals)  (Ticals) 

113  (1894-95) 17,334,469 12,487,165 

1 14  (1895-96) 18,074,690 12,685,697 

115  (1896-97).  . 20,644,500 18,482,715 

116  (1897-98) 24,808,001 23,996,625 

117  (1898-99) 28,496,029 23,787,582 

118  (1899-1900) 29,902,365 27,052,717 

119  (1900-01) 35,611,306 31,841,257 

120  (I9OI-O2) > .  .  .36,157,963 36,646,558 

121  (1902-03) 39,000,000 38,971,271 

122  (1903-04) 45,540,000 45,499,365 


The  continuous,  and  in  many  ways  remarkable, 
growth  of  revenue  evidenced  by  these  figures  is  all 
the  more  striking  in  view  of  the  fact  that  it  is  the 
result,  not  of  new  or  enhanced  taxation,  but  merely 
of  more  effectual  methods  of  collection  and  financial 
control,  combined  with  the  natural  expansion  of 
trade  and  cultivation.  The  expenditure,  it  can  be 
readily  understood,  keeps  pace  closely  with  the 
revenue,  since  with  a  rapidly  progressing  adminis- 
tration and  calls  for  funds  from  every  quarter  to 
carry  out  the  numerous  schemes  brought  forward 
for  the  development  of  the  country  and  the  in- 
creased welfare  of  its  inhabitants,  the  budget  allot- 
ments must  always  approximate  closely  to  the  funds 
available  for  the  undertakings  of  the  year. 

It  is,  therefore,  a  matter  for  genuine  satisfaction 
that  the  revenue  continues  to  show  itself  so  elastic 


Finance  131 

that  the  Government  is  able,  year  after  year,  to  de- 
vote larger  and  larger  sums  for  the  requirements  of 
the  several  departments  of  state,  and  the  fact  may 
fairly  be  taken  as  indicative  of  the  steady  develop- 
ment of  the  country,  as  well  as  of  the  real  progress 
made  in  the  government  of  the  realm. 

REVENUE 

The  appended  statement  shows  the  main  heads 
of  revenue  and  expenditure,  with  the  amounts  esti- 
mated against  each  for  the  current  year,  and  the 
following  explanations  regarding  certain  of  them 
may  be  of  interest. 

The  revenue  from  the  first  four  heads,  as  their 
names  imply,  is  farmed  out  annually  to  the  highest 
bidder,  who  has  the  right,  under  Government  con- 
trol, of  retailing  his  spirits  or  opium  at  certain  fixed 
prices,  or  of  running  his  gambling  houses  or  lottery 
offices,  as  the  case  may  be,  in  conformity  with  the 
regulations  in  force  in  that  behalf.  This  system 
ensures  a  considerable  revenue  to  the  Government 
from  the  heads  concerned,  with  a  minimum  of 
trouble  and  expense,  and  the  only  item  to  which 
exception  may  perhaps  be  taken  is  that  appertaining 
to  gambling,  which  is  open  to  obvious  criticism. 

It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  practice 


132  Kingdom  of  Siam 

is  one  of  very  long  standing,  that  the  gambling  habit 
is  deeply  ingrained  in  the  Chinese  community,  who 
constitute  an  important  element  in  the  population 
of  the  country,  and  that  no  Government  can  af- 
ford to  suddenly  lose  a  considerable  portion  of  its 
revenue  without  violently  checking  the  progress  of 
administration.  The  question  whether  the  total 
suppression  of  public  gambling  is  practicable  is  en- 
gaging the  attention  of  the  Government,  which  is 
fully  alive  to  the  objections  to  be  urged  against  the 
practice  on  moral  and  economic  grounds,  and  it  is 
hoped  that  it  may  be  possible  before  long  to  devise 
a  scheme  providing  a  sufficient  augmentation  of 
revenue  from  some  other  sources  to  make  up  for 
the  loss  of  that  at  present  derived  from  the  gambling 
farms.  In  the  meantime,  it  is  the  policy  of  the 
Government  to  reduce  the  number  of  gambling 
houses  as  far  as  possible,  and  in  pursuance  of  this 
thirty-eight  such  houses  have  been  closed  during 
the  last  four  years,  viz.,  seven  in  1900-01,  fifteen  in 
1901-02,  twelve  in  1902-03,  and  four  in  the  current 
year  (1903). 

The  customs  revenue  is  derived  from  a  general  im- 
port duty  of  three  per  cent,  ad  valorem,  and  a  vary- 
ing export  duty  on  the  main  products  of  the  country, 
the  chief  of  which  are  rice,  teak-wood,  and  bullocks 


Finance  133 

— the  last  being  exported  principally  for  consump- 
tion at  the  neighboring  port  of  Singapore. 

The  mining  revenue  is  mainly  obtained  from  roy- 
alty and  export  duties  on  tin.  This  commodity  is 
obtained  in  large  quantities  in  Siamese  Malaya,  and 
particularly  in  the  province  of  Puket,  on  the  west 
coast  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  which  has  been  de- 
scribed as  the  Rand  of  the  kingdom.  The  gross  ex- 
port of  slab  tin  from  Puket  during  the  year  1902-03 
amounted  to  57,893  piculs  (about  3430  tons),  and 
the  direct  revenue  was  over  one  million  ticals. 

The  receipts  under  the  head  "Royal  Mint  and 
Treasury "  are  almost  wholly  represented  by  the 
profit  accruing  to  the  Government  from  the  coinage 
of  ticals,  of  which  it  is  expected  that  fourteen  mil- 
lion will  be  minted  during  the  current  year  to  supply 
the  requirements  of  trade.  In  accordance  with  the 
scheme  brought  into  force  in  November,  1902, 
which  is  referred  to  in  more  detail  in  Chapter 
X.,  these  ticals  are  issued  by  the  Treasury  at  a  fixed 
rate  (at  present  seventeen  to  the  pound  sterling)  in 
exchange  for  gold  drafts  on  London. 

The  railway  traffic  receipts  for  the  current  year 
show  a  large  increase  of  eighty-three  per  cent,  on 
those  estimated  for  the  previous  twelve  months — a 
result  due  partly  to  the  recent  opening  of  a  new  line 


134  Kingdom  of  Siam 

of  railway,  151  kilometres  long,  from  Bangkok  to 
Petchaburi,  on  the  southwest  of  the  capital,  and 
also  in  part  to  the  expectation  of  increased  traffic 
on  the  northeastern  line  to  Korat,  including  its  ex- 
tension to  Lopburi.  This  very  considerable  increase 
of  receipts  is  satisfactory  evidence  of  the  largely 
extended  use  of  railways  in  Siam — a  circumstance 
which  must  tend  to  the  convenience  and  enlighten- 
ment of  the  inhabitants  of  the  realm  and  the  further- 
ance of  trade,  both  internal  and  external. 

The  octroi  in  Siam  is  an  impost  of  the  nature  of  a 
transit  duty  on  produce  not  included  in  the  schedule 
of  dutiable  articles  of  export.  Its  effect  being  to 
hamper  the  internal  trade  of  the  country  to  some 
extent,  and  to  raise  the  cost  of  living,  the  question 
of  its  abolition  is  engaging  the  attention  of  the 
Government. 

The  Chinese  poll-tax  is  levied  triennially  on  male 
Chinese  subjects  resident  in  Siam,  while  the  capita- 
tion tax  is  an  annual  impost  payable  by  Siamese 
males  of  certain  classes,  in  commutation  of  the 
forced  personal  labor  for  the  Government,  formerly 

exacted. 

EXPENDITURE 

Ministry  of  the  Interior. — In  reviewing  the  ex- 
penditure heads,  attention  is  naturally  directed  in 


Finance  135 

the  first  instance  to  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior, 
which  controls  the  greater  part  of  the  administration 
of  the  kingdom,  outside  the  metropolitan  province, 
and  as  an  indication  of  the  enormous  advance  made 
by  this  ministry  in  the  past  decade,  it  may  be  men- 
tioned that  its  expenditure  budget  has  increased 
during  that  period  about  fifty-fold — the  figure  for 
the  year  1894-95  being  approximately  206,000  ticals, 
while  that  for  the  current  year  exceeds  10,500,000 
licals. 

The  chief  items  included  in  the  above-mentioned 
sum  are:  Gendarmerie,  2,560,000  ticals;  Revenue 
offices,  1,482,000  ticals;  Provincial  administration, 
5,275,000  ticals;  and  Forests,  850,000  ticals.  The 
gendarmerie  is  a  police  force  of  a  semi-military  char- 
acter, officered  partly  by  Europeans ;  while  the  duties 
of  the  Forest  Department  are  concerned  with  the 
conservation  of  the  extensive  teak  forests  of  North- 
ern Siam,  the  general  control  of  the  timber-extract- 
ing operations  conducted  therein  by  the  lessees  of 
the  several  tracts,  and  the  collection  of  the  royalty 
and  transit  dues  payable  on  the  timber  so  removed. 

The  Ministry  of  Local  Government  controls  the 
administration  of  the  capital  at  Bangkok,  as  well  as 
that  of  the  province  in  which  the  capital  is  situated. 
The  principal  departments  under  it  are  those  of 


136  Kingdom  of  Siam 

Police  (1,143,000  ticals),  including  a  special  railway 
force,  and  Sanitation  (1,121,064  ticals),  which  is 
concerned  with  the  conduct  of  all  sanitary  arrange- 
ments of  the  capital,  as  well  as  the  construction  and 
maintenance  of  the  roads  and  drains  of  Bangkok  and 
the  lighting  of  its  public  thoroughfares. 

Ministry  of  Finance. — The  principal  departments 
included  in  the  figures  shown  against  the  Ministry 
of  Finance  are  the  Royal  Mint,  1,632,000  ticals,  and 
the  Custom  House,  434,000  ticals.  As  regards  the 
former,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  greater  part  of 
the  sum  concerned  represents  the  anticipated  profit 
for  the  current  year  on  the  coinage  of  ticals — the 
whole  of  which  has  been  charged  off  on  the  expen- 
diture side  of  the  budget  for  transfer  to  a  special 
reserve  fund  to  be  formed  in  connection  with  the 
scheme  lately  adopted  for  placing  the  currency  of 
the  country  on  a  gold  basis.  Further  reference  to 
this  scheme  is  made  in  the  chapter  on  Currency, 
but  it  may  be  briefly  explained  here  that  the  policy 
of  the  Government  is  to  set  aside  annually  the  profit 
accruing  from  the  coinage  of  its  metallic  currency, 
with  a  view  to  creating  a  gold  reserve  for  the  pur- 
pose of  ensuring  the  stability  of  the  tical  at  the  rate 
of  exchange  to  be  eventually  decided  on. 

Ministry  of  Agriculture. — The  expenditure  of  the 


Finance  137 

Ministry  of  Agriculture  is  chiefly  incurred  in  con- 
nection with  the  following  departments,  viz.,  Land 
Registration,  179,000  ticals;  Sericulture,  236,000 
ticals;  Mines,  174,000  ticals;  Special  Commissioners 
for  the  Issue  of  Title-Deeds,  195,000  ticals;  and 
Survey  Department,  901,000  ticals. 

The  departments  concerned  with  the  registration 
of  land  and  the  issue  of  title-deeds  are  creations  of 
recent  date,  and  have  been  established  in  conformity 
with  the  policy  of  the  Government  to  accurately  de- 
termine and  record  the  holdings  of  the  land-owning 
classes.  The  importance  of  this  work  cannot  be 
overestimated,  as  it  will  not  only  ensure  to  the 
owners  of  the  fields  security  of  tenure  in  their  hold- 
ings, but  also  provide  the  Government  with  reliable 
data  for  the  assessment  of  land  taxes. 

As  regards  the  Department  of  Sericulture,  which 
is  still  in  its  infancy,  it  will  suffice  to  say  that  the 
efforts  of  the  Government  are  directed  towards  the 
establishment  of  an  agency  for  the  investigation  of 
the  best  methods  of  silk  production,  as  suited  to 
Siam.  A  Japanese  expert  was  engaged  for  this 
purpose  last  year,  and  his  observations  and  experi- 
ments have  been  attended  with  so  satisfactory  a 
measure  of  success  that  it  is  now  the  purpose  of  the 
Government,  by  the  creation  of  model  nurseries  in 


138  Kingdom  of  Siam 

suitable  localities  and  the  adoption  of  modern 
methods  of  worm-raising  and  silk-reeling,  to  provide 
centres  of  instruction  for  the  classes  already  engaged 
in  this  industry. 

Siam  at  present  exports  a  fair  quantity  of  raw 
silk,  but  the  quality  is  in  all  cases  poor  owing  to 
unskilful  methods,  and,  as  a  consequence,  the  prices 
obtained  are  very  low  compared  with  those  of  other 
silk-producing  countries.  This  defect  it  will  be  the 
endeavor  of  the  sericultural  department  to  remedy, 
and  if  the  scheme  proves  successful  it  should  not  be 
long  before  Siamese  silk  takes  its  proper  place  as  an 
important  and  profitable  article  of  export. 

Ministry  of  Pub  lie  Works. — The  sum  shown  against 
this  head  includes  the  Provincial  Buildings  and  Roads 
branch  (1,269,000  ticals),  and  the  Department  of 
Posts  and  Telegraphs  (914,000  ticals),  but  not  Rail- 
ways, which  are  separately  shown  in  the  accounts, 
though  under  the  control  of  the  same  ministry. 

The  sum  allotted  for  road  construction  in  this 
year's  budget  is  chiefly  for  the  province  of  Puket, 
on  the  west  coast  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  the 
continued  opening  up  of  this  part  of  the  country  by 
improved  means  of  communications  should  assist 
in  still  further  developing  the  flourishing  tin-mining 
industry  carried  on  there. 


Finance  139 

Railway  Construction. —  The  policy  hitherto 
adopted  by  the  Government  has  been  to  construct 
its  railways  entirely  out  of  revenue,  and  up  to  the 
end  of  the  year  121  (1892-93)  a  sum  of  over  thirty 
million  ticals  had  been  so  expended.  The  current 
year's  allotment  of  1,500,000  ticals  is  considerably 
less  than  the  average  of  the  last  few  years,  but  it  is 
proposed  to  supplement  this  to  the  extent  of  about 
4,500,000  ticals  from  the  accumulated  cash  reserve 
of  the  Government,  in  order  to  provide  funds  for 
the  further  extension  of  the  northern  line.  This  is 
to  be  pushed  on  as  rapidly  as  possible  to  Chieng 
Mai,  a  town  in  the  extreme  north  of  Siam,  and  it  is 
estimated  that  the  work  will  be  completed  in  about 
six  years  at  a  cost  of  thirty-six  million  ticals. 

Miscellaneous. — The  items  included  in  this  head 
are  principally  large  sums  of  a  special  nature,  such 
as  1,600,000  ticals  for  non-recurring  expenditure  in 
the  northern  province  of  Payap,  which  was  disturbed 
last  year  by  a  local  rising  headed  by  freebooters 
from  across  the  frontier;  300,000  ticals  for  the  civil 
list  of  H.R.H.  the  Crown  Prince;  a  like  sum  for  His 
Majesty's  tour  expenses;  and  150,000  ticals  for  ex- 
penditure connected  with  Siam's  exhibits  at  the  St. 
Louis  Exposition,  this  not  representing  the  whole 
of  the  expenditure,  but  the  amount  allotted  for  this 


140 


Kingdom  of  Siam 


year  only,  a  further  credit  of  30,000  ticals  having 
been  voted  for  the  year  and  70,000  ticals  for  the 
following  year. 

BUDGET  ESTIMATE  OF  THE  REVENUE  AND  EXPENDITURE  OF  THE 
KINGDOM  OF  SIAM  FOR  THE  YEAR  122  (1903-04) 


REVENUE 

EXPENDITURE 

Amount 
(Ticals) 

Heads 

Amount 
(Ticals) 

5.757i383 
4,158,583 
7,  TI3,396 
2,136,225 
638,170 

4,376,478 
4,384,9I3 
1,137,322 
1.037,345 
135,940 
537,556 
1,726,920 

2,020,000 

600,405 
67,231 
2,357,765 
69,024 

1,552,303 
792,411 
3,386,937 

J79,943 
127,633 

539,000 
1,047,800 

Ministry  of  the  Interior  

10,580,018 
6,532,140 
1,005,274 
2,915,554 
3,085,277 
1,906,840 
1,588,566 
1,520,307 
2^83,799 

135,690 
154,948 
120,952 
6,000,000 

730,000 
1,500,000 

1,010,000 
100,000 

350,000 

4,080,000 

Spirit  Farm 

Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs.  . 
Ministry  of  Local  Government 
Ministry  of  Finance  
Ministry  of  Agriculture  
Ministry  of  Justice  
Ministry  of  Public  Instruction 
Ministry  of  Public  Works  
H.    M.  s   Private  Secretary's 

Lottery  Farm  

Taxes  on  Paddy  Lands,  Or- 
chards,   Gardens,     Planta- 

Telegraph  Department  
Royal  Mint  
Railway  Traffic  Receipts  
Judicial  Fees  and  Fines  
Prison  Manufactures  
Sundry  Fees  and  Licenses.  .  . 
Miscellaneous  Taxes  

H.  M.'s  Civil  List  
Pensions,    Annuities,    and 

Railway  Construction  
Railway  Traffic 

Reception    of    Distinguished 
Visitors  

Chinese  Poll-Tax 

Rent  and  Revenue  from  Gov- 
ernment Property.  
Sale  of  Government  Property 
Interest   and    Profit    on    Ex- 

Total               

45,499,365 

i 

Total        

45,880,693 
340,693 

Deduct  for  short  collections 

45,540,000 

CHAPTER  X 
CURRENCY  AND  BANKING 


141 


CHAPTER   X 

CURRENCY  AND  BANKING,  BY  THE  ACTING 
FINANCIAL  ADVISER 

PRIOR  to  the  2/th  of  November,  1902,  the  cur- 
rency of  Siam  was  on  a  purely  silver  basis,  and 
hence,  up  to  that  date,  the  value  of  its  monetary 
unit  (the  tical)  followed  the  fluctuations  of  the  white 
metal.  For  many  years  silver  had  been  steadily 
falling  and  although,  as  shown  in  the  chapter  on 
Finance,  the  revenue  was  exhibiting  a  most  satis- 
factory quality  of  expansion,  the  purchasing  power 
of  the  tical  was  being  reduced  year  by  year,  and 
larger  and  larger  sums  had  to  be  paid  by  the  state 
for  all  services  and  commodities  whose  value  was 
measured  in  gold.  His  Majesty's  Government  was, 
therefore,  forced  to  the  conclusion  that  unless  it 
took  steps  to  counteract  the  depreciation  of  its 
monetary  unit  (a  depreciation  the  end  of  which  no 
one  could  foresee),  it  would  be  necessary,  if  the 
progressive  efficiency  of  the  administration  was  to 

143 


i44  Kingdom  of  Siam 

be  maintained,  to  increase  taxation  to  a  considerable 
extent.  This  was  regarded  as  undesirable  for  many 
reasons  even  if  its  practicability  were  demonstrated 
and  consequently,  after  mature  deliberation,  it  was 
resolved  to  prohibit  the  further  free  coinage  of  silver 
—hitherto  imported  in  the  form  of  Mexican  and 
British  dollars,  and  exchangeable,  by  law,  without 
limit,  at  the  rate  of  five  ticals  for  three  dollars.  At 
the  same  time  it  was  publicly  notified  that,  for  the 
future,  any  person  desiring  to  obtain  ticals  from  the 
Treasury  could  do  so  by  depositing  an  equivalent 
sum  in  gold  with  the  Government  bankers  in  Lon- 
don, at  a  rate  of  exchange  to  be  ascertained  on  ap- 
plication, and  the  first  transactions  effected  under 
this  arrangement  were  at  the  rate  of  twenty  ticals 
to  the  pound  sterling,  the  quotations  of  the  local 
banks  just  prior  to  this  having  been  about  2 if.  The 
Government  selling  rate  has  since  been  gradually 
raised  by  easy  stages  until,  at  the  present  time,  it 
stands  at  seventeen  ticals  to  the  pound,  with  a  bank 
rate  showing  no  very  marked  difference. 

The  arrangement  here  described  has,  so  far,  been 
found  to  work  satisfactorily  and  has  been  generally 
approved  by  the  banking  and  mercantile  community, 
by  reason  of  the  strengthening  effect  it  has  already 
had  on  the  currency  of  the  country,  and  the  expec- 


Currency  and  Banking  145 

tation  that  when  the  scheme  is  thoroughly  estab- 
lished the  tical  will  have  a  practically  constant  value. 
The  importance  of  the  latter  consideration  from  the 
point  of  view  of  general  trade  interests  will  be  readily 
appreciated,  while  the  effect  of  a  tical  of  higher  value 
will  be  to  lower  gradually  local  prices  all  round  and  so 
reduce  the  cost  of  living  to  the  community  at  large. 
It  may  thus  be  claimed  that  the  important  economic 
step  taken  by  the  Government  for  the  placing  of  its 
currency  on  a  gold  basis  is  calculated  to  further  the 
interests  of  the  country  generally,  besides  enhancing 
the  credit  of  the  state  and  the  value  of  the  public 
revenues,  and  that  the  measures  adopted  towards 
that  end  have  resulted  in  a  minimum  of  disturbance 
to  the  local  trade  interests. 

METALLIC   CURRENCY 

The  metallic    currency   of  Siam   consists  of  the 
following  coins : 

SILVER 
Name  Approximate  Weight  Fineness 

Tical 234     grains  (  About  900  parts 

Salung  (}  tical) 58.5      "  •<  pure     silver    to 

Fuang  (|  tical) 29.25    "  (  100  alloy. 

COPPER 
Name  Approximate  Weight 

Song  Phai,  or  4-att  piece  (value  T^  of  a  tical) 291  grains 

Phai,  or  2-att  piece  (value  ^  of  a  tical) 175 

Att  (value  ^T  of  a  tical) 87 

Solot,  or  half-att  (value  T^5  of  a  tical) 43       " 


146  Kingdom  of  Siam 

PAPER   CURRENCY 

Up  to  the  iQth  of  September,  1902,  the  paper 
money  circulating  in  Siam  was  confined  to  the  issues 
of  the  three  foreign  banks  having  branches  in  Bang- 
kok, and  the  notes  of  these,  though  not  legal  tender, 
had  been  practically  accepted  as  such  by  the  public 
and  enjoyed  a  considerable  measure  of  popularity. 
It  appeared  expedient  to  the  Government,  however, 
to  provide  for  an  issue  of  strictly  convertible  state 
paper  currency,  and  arrangements  were  accordingly 
made  for  the  establishment  of  a  separate  department 
for  this  purpose,  subordinate  to  the  Ministry  of 
Finance,  the  operations  of  which  commenced  on  the 
date  above  mentioned. 

The  Government  notes  are  of  five  values,  viz., 
five,  ten,  twenty,  one  hundred,  and  one  thousand 
ticals,  and  the  success  of  the  scheme  has  been  most 
marked,  as  the  circulation  has  risen  in  a  single  year 
to  over  six  million  ticals,  being  at  the  average  rate 
of  above  five  hundred  thousand  ticals  a  month. 
This  result  is  all  the  more  remarkable  in  view  of  the 
fact  that  the  state  notes  have  still  to  compete  to 
some  extent  with  the  issues  of  the  banks  already  re- 
ferred to,  and  that  no  attempt  whatever  has  been 
made  to  force  the  circulation  in  any  way,  the  issues 
being  made  for  cash  only,  even  to  the  Treasury. 


Currency  and  Banking  147 

The  striking  success  attained  in  the  short  time  the 
department  has  been  open  augurs  well  for  the  future, 
and  seems  to  show  that  the  Government  notes  have 
supplied  a  real  want  in  the  needs  of  the  country. 

The  outstandings  at  the  present  time  are  fully 
covered  by  cash  held  in  the  vaults  of  the  paper  cur- 
rency department.  By  law,  twenty-five  per  cent, 
of  the  coin  received  for  the  notes  issued  may  be  in- 
vested in  such  securities  as  the  Minister  of  Finance 
may  select,  with  the  approval  of  His  Majesty,  but 
no  investments  have  yet  been  made. 

BANKING 

Banking  establishments  are  represented  in  Siam 
by  branches  of  the  Hong-Kong  and  Shanghai  Bank- 
ing Corporation,  the  chartered  Bank  of  India,  Aus- 
tralia, and  China,  and  the  Banque  de  1'Indo-Chine, 
which  commenced  business  in  Bangkok  in  1888, 
1893,  and  1897,  respectively.  There  are  also  agencies 
of  the  Mercantile  Bank  of  India,  the  National  Bank 
of  China,  Limited,  and  the  International  Banking 
Corporation  of  New  York.  All  these  institutions 
are  substantial  and  well-established  concerns,  with 
branches,  agencies,  and  correspondents  in  the  prin- 
cipal cities  of  the  world,  and  they  are  thus  in  a 


148  Kingdom  of  Siam 

position  to  meet  all  demands  made  on  them  for 
purposes  of  trade  and  private  business.  Their 
establishment  in  Siam  has  undoubtedly  been  most 
beneficial  to  the  trade  interests  of  the  country,  and 
the  three  first-named  institutions  also  deserve  special 
recognition  as  being  the  pioneers  in  the  matter  of 
popularizing  the  use  of  paper  money  in  the  capital 
of  the  kingdom.  Much  of  the  success  of  the  Gov- 
ernment issue,  of  which  mention  has  been  made 
above,  is  unquestionably  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
notes  of  the  private  banks  had  already  thoroughly 
established  themselves  in  the  confidence  of  the 
people  and  had  accustomed  them  for  many  years  to 
the  use  of  this  particular  form  of  credit.  The  Gov- 
ernment paper  had  consequently  no  prejudice  or 
suspicion  to  encounter,  and  was  readily  taken  by 
the  public  from  the  first. 

The  aggregate  volume  of  business  done  by  the 
banks  established  in  Siam  may  be  gauged  to  some 
extent  by  the  figures  relating  to  the  foreign  trade  of 
the  country,  which  amounted,  in  the  year  ending  the 
3  ist  of  March,  1903,  to  a  total  of  155,531,994  ticals, 
the  imports  being  valued  at  69,716,074  ticals,  and 
the  exports  at  85,815,920  ticals.  These  consider- 
able figures,  which  show  on  the  total  an  advance  of 
nearly  eighteen  per  cent,  on  the  returns  of  the  pre- 


Currency  and  Banking  149 

vious  year,  indicate  the  extent  to  which  the  assist- 
ance of  the  banks  is  invoked  in  financing  the  external 
trade  of  the  country ;  but  besides  this  there  is,  of 
course,  a  very  large  mass  of  business  connected  with 
private  loans,  advances,  deposits,  and  drawing  ac- 
counts. Among  the  latter  are  those  of  the  Govern- 
ment, which  keeps  a  portion  of  its  cash  balance  with 
the  three  institutions  mentioned  as  having  branches 
in  Bangkok. 

No  regular  banking  facilities  are  provided  for  the 
interior  of  the  kingdom,  but  the  Government  is 
usually  prepared  to  sell  drafts  on  district  treasuries, 
for  the  convenience  of  traders  and  others,  at  a  small 
charge  for  commission.  This  privilege  is  readily 
availed  of  at  times,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the 
germ  of  one  phase  of  the  functions  of  the  future 
National  Bank  of  Siam.  There  can  be  little  doubt 
that  an  institution  such  as  this  would  be  of  the 
greatest  convenience  and  utility  both  to  the  Govern- 
ment and  the  country  at  large,  and  it  is  hoped  that 
it  may  be  possible  before  long  to  give  practical 
effect  to  the  idea. 


CHAPTER  XI 
AGRICULTURE 


CHAPTER   XI 

AGRICULTURE    IN   SIAM,    BY   W.    A.    GRAHAM,   ESQ., 

FORMERLY   ASSISTANT   TO   THE   MINISTER 

OF  AGRICULTURE 

THE  Siamese  are,  before  all  things,  an  agricultu- 
ral nation.  From  time  immemorial,  the  valley 
of  the  Menam  has  been  one  vast  rice-field,  and  the 
present  inhabitants  of  the  country  continue  to 
plough,  sow,  and  reap  in  it  after  the  same  methods, 
and  with  the  same  kind  of  implements,  as  were  em- 
ployed by  their  predecessors  a  thousand  years  ago. 
The  Siamese  man  does  not  take  kindly  to  most 
forms  of  labor,  and  is  quite  content  to  see  such 
trades  and  manufactures  as  there  are  in  his  country 
in  the  hands  of  Chinese  and  other  foreigners.  The 
pursuit  of  agriculture,  however,  he  reserves  to  him- 
self, and,  while  nine  tenths  of  the  people  of  the 
country  follow  the  calling,  it  is  very  rarely  that  for- 
eigners are  found  taking  an  active  part  in  any  form 
of  agriculture  except  market-gardening. 

i53 


154  Kingdom  of  Siam 

The  principal  product  of  the  country  is  rice.  In- 
deed, so  much  is  this  the  case,  that  thus  baldly  to 
state  the  fact  is  to  convey  but  a  feeble  and  inade- 
quate impression  of  the  supreme  position  of  this 
cereal  in  the  land.  It  might  almost  be  said  that  rice 
is  the  only  agricultural  product,  for  though  Siam 
exports  timber  and  grows  maize,  millet,  sugar,  to- 
bacco, and  fruit,  yet  her  rice  production  preponder- 
ates so  entirely,  and  her  commerce,  politics,  and 
social  conditions  are  now,  and  have  always  been,  so 
profoundly  influenced  by  rice,  that  all  these  lesser 
products  amount,  by  comparison,  almost  to  noth- 
ing. The  European,  whose  idea  of  a  staple  food  is 
formed  from  a  knowledge  of  the  part  played  in  the 
economy  of  his  own  country,  can  only  vaguely 
imagine  the  importance  of  rice  to  the  Siamese.  It 
constitutes  not  merely  the  principal,  but  almost 
the  sole  food  of  every  one,  from  the  highest  noble 
to  the  lowliest  plebeian :  horses,  cattle,  dogs,  cats, 
and  all  other  domestic  animals  live  on  it ;  it  is  used 
for  making  beer  and  spirits ;  it  enters  largely  into  all 
ceremonials,  and  the  superstitious  observances  in 
connection  with  it  provide  the  people  with  their 
most  frequent  occasions  for  holiday-making.  The 
only  recognized  means  of  investing  money  is,  or  was 
until  the  recent  introduction  of  European  banking, 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


Agriculture  155 

the  purchase  of  rice-fields;  the  nobility  is  graded 
according  to  the  (now  purely  nominal)  grants  of 
rice-land  conferred  by  the  king ;  dealings  in  rice  and 
the  ownership  of  rice-land  are  the  causes  of  most  of 
the  civil  litigation  in  the  law  courts,  and  the  result 
of  the  last,  or  prospects  of  the  next,  rice  harvest, 
make  the  most  absorbing  topic  of  conversation  at 
all  times.  It  is  rice  which  forms  the  cargoes  of  the 
thousands  of  boats  ever  passing  up  and  down  the 
river  Menam ;  which  supplies  the  grist  of  the  numer- 
ous mills  of  modern  Bangkok  (the  furnaces  of  which 
are  fed  with  rice-husk),  and  which  is  carried  away  in 
the  ocean-going  steamers  always  to  be  seen  loading 
in  the  port ;  finally  it  is  from  rice  that  the  Govern- 
ment derives,  directly,  almost  the  whole  of  its 
revenue. 

Every  step  in  the  process  of  rice  cultivation  de- 
mands, in  common  with  most  of  the  ordinary  occur- 
rences of  Siamese  life,  the  observance  of  more  or 
less  elaborate  religious  ceremonial,  for  no  one  living 
in  a  country  where  the  innumerable  spirits  of  earth, 
air,  and  water  take  such  a  lively  interest  in  the 
affairs  of  mankind  as  they  do  in  Siam,  would  be  at 
all  wise  in  undertaking  any  matter,  as  to  the  issue 
of  which  he  might  be  anxious,  without  due  pro- 
pitiations made  beforehand.  Besides  these  private 


156  Kingdom  of  Siam 

ceremonies  which  affect  the  individual  only,  there 
are  also  others  of  a  public  nature,  directly  concern- 
ing the  entire  community,  and  regarded  as  of  the 
utmost  importance  in  determining  the  nature  of  the 
harvest.  The  chief  of  these  are  the  "Loh  Chin 
Cha,"  or  Swinging  Festival,  and  the"Raak  Na," 
or  First  Ploughing;  ceremonies  probably  of  Brah- 
minical  origin,  the  latter,  and  diverse  forms  of  the 
former,  being  practised  in  all  the  countries  of  Indo- 
China  and  mentioned  in  various  Brahmin  histories 
and  traditions.  From  the  incidents  during  the  per- 
formance of  these  ceremonies,  which  are  watched 
with  anxiety  by  enormous  crowds  of  the  people,  the 
soothsayers  are  enabled  to  foretell  the  amount  of 
success  which  will  attend  the  agricultural  operations 
of  the  coming  season. 

Rice  is  grown  in  the  plains  after  two  different 
methods,  the  one  by  sowing  the  seed  broadcast  on 
the  land  where  it  is  to  grow,  and  the  other  by  caus- 
ing it  to  sprout  first  in  small  patches  or  nurseries 
of  specially  prepared  ground  and  afterwards  trans- 
planting it  into  the  fields.  The  first  is  the  older 
system,  the  adaptation,  in  fact,  of  the  ancient 
rude  hill-cultivation  to  the  plains,  and  for  this  the 
local  rainfall  is  the  only  water-supply  required, 
while  for  the  second  the  collection  of  water  with 


Agriculture  157 

which  the  land  can  be  irrigated  from  time  to  time  is 
necessary.  For  the  first  method,  or  "  Na  Wan" 
(Na,  a  rice-field,  and  Wan,  to  sow),  also  called  "Na 
Muang,"  the  land  is  ploughed  as  soon  as  the  rain 
has  moistened  the  soil  sufficiently  for  the  plough  to 
break  it  up,  usually  in  the  month  of  June.  Soon 
after,  the  ground  is  again  gone  over  with  the  harrow, 
being  thereby  completely  broken  up  and  denuded 
of  grass  and  weeds,  after  which  the  seed  is  sown 
upon  it.  The  crop  is  then  left  to  grow  and  usually 
receives  enough  moisture  from  the  rain  to  enable  it 
to  come  to  maturity  without  further  attention.  For 
the  second  method,  or  "Na  Dum"  (Na,  a  rice-field, 
and  Dum,  to  dive  into,  hence  to  plant  with  the  hand 
in  the  soft,  yielding  mud),  also  called  "Na  Suan," 
the  ploughing  is  as  for  Na  Wan,  but  the  harrowing 
is  not  done  until  sufficient  water  has  collected  on 
the  field,  either  from  rainfall  or  by  irrigation,  to 
entirely  cover  the  soil.  It  is  then  churned  into  a 
porridgy  mass  and  the  weeds  and  grass  removed  by 
the  harrow.  In  the  meantime  the  rice  has  been 
sprouting  in  the  nursery,  the  manured  soil  of  which 
causes  rapid  germination,  and  the  young  plants  are 
now  taken  up  and  planted  out.  The  "Na  Dum  " 
method,  common  to  all  rice-growing  countries  of 
the  East,  is  much  more  intricate  than  the  "Na 


158  Kingdom  of  Siam 

Wan,"  but  is  also  much  more  productive,  and 
whenever  a  supply  of  water  becomes  available  by 
irrigation  or  from  excessive  rain  the  latter  gives 
place  to  the  former. 

The  practice  of  "Na  Dum"  is  an  art.  The  seed- 
lings, when  the  fields  are  ready  for  them,  are  taken 
from  the  nurseries  in  bundles  of  a  hundred  or  so  and 
neatly  tied  together,  the  mud  being  shaken  from 
their  roots  by  a  deft  kick  administered  to  the  bundle 
at  the  moment  of  drawing  it  from  the  soil.  This 
work  falls  to  the  men  and  the  planting  usually  to 
the  women,  and  as  skill  in  planting  vastly  enhances 
a  girl's  chances  in  the  marriage  market,  so  a  young 
man  who  should  hand  to  the  women,  to  plant, 
bundles  clumsily  tied  or  with  muddy  roots  would 
stand  small  chance  of  getting  a  bride  in  his  own 
village. 

Buffaloes  are  used  for  ploughing  in  the  lower 
plains,  where  the  atmosphere  is  humid,  but  the 
buffalo,  in  spite  of  his  great  strength,  is  useless  in  a 
hot,  dry  climate,  and  therefore,  in  the  higher  and 
drier  parts,  bullocks  are  used,  a  pair  of  these  doing 
the  work  of  one  buffalo. 

While  the  paddy,  as  it  is  called  until  the  grain  is 
husked,  is  growing,  it  demands  no  labor,  and  until 
it  is  reaped  nothing  is  done  beyond  a  little  spas- 


Agriculture  159 

modic  bird-scaring  by  the  children.  With  the 
reaping  time  all  are  busy  again :  the  crop  is  cut 
with  small  sickles  loaded  on  sleds  and  drawn  to  the 
winnowing-ground,  a  small  spot  either  in  the  fields 
or  near  the  village,  on  which  the  earth  is  beaten 
down  hard  and  smooth.  There,  after  the  spirits  have 
been  duly  propitiated,  the  sheaves  are  strewn  out 
and  are  trampled  upon  by  the  cattle  until  the  grain 
is  all  detached  from  the  straw.  Winnowing  then 
takes  place,  after  which  the  golden  yellow  grain  is 
stored  in  specially  constructed  huts  and  the  year's 
work  is  over. 

Though  there  are  many  large  estates  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Bangkok,  the  property  of  the  royal 
family  and  nobility,  the  greater  part  of  the  land  is 
held  in  small  farms  by  peasant  proprietors,  having 
full  hereditary  rights  subject  only  to  the  will  of  the 
king,  in  whom,  finally,  all  rights  are  vested  in  ac- 
cordance with  ancient  custom.  Each  man  ploughs 
his  own  land,  but  the  planting  and  reaping  is  usually 
done  with  the  aid  of  his  neighbors,  the  whole  village 
turning  out  and  working  together  on  each  owner's 
fields  in  turn.  This  labor  in  common  is  the  occa- 
sion for  much  merry-making,  the  young  men  and 
maidens,  glad  of  the  chance  of  meeting,  planting 
or  reaping  all  day  amid  bouts  of  repartee  and  bursts 


160  Kingdom  of  Siam 

of  laughter,  finishing  up  with  a  hearty  feed  at  the 
expense  of  the  owner  of  the  fields,  followed  by  rude 
music  and  further  badinage.  In  the  lower  plains, 
however,  where  the  farmer  is  beginning  to  under- 
stand the  profit  to  be  derived  from  increase  of  pro- 
duction, this  happy-go-lucky  custom  is  falling  into 
disuse,  the  merry  amateurs  being  replaced  by  hard- 
working farm  hands  engaged  at  a  wage  for  the 
season. 

Two  crops  of  rice  are  habitually  raised  each  year 
in  the  plains  of  Siam,  the  first  called  "Kao  Bao," 
or  light  crop,  and  the  second,  "Kao  Nak,"  or  heavy 
crop.  The  "Kao  Bao"  is  planted  on  irrigated  land 
before  the  appearance  of  the  rains  in  the  plains, 
often  as  early  as  February,  and  is  reaped  in  May  or 
June.  The  "Kao  Nak,"  is  planted  between  July 
and  September,  and  is  reaped  in  December  or  Jan- 
uary. The  "Kao  Bao"  crop  in  no  case  amounts  to 
a  very  large  quantity  of  rice. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  hilly  parts  of  Siam  culti- 
vate a  variety  of  rice  different  from  that  grown  in 
the  plains,  following  the  method  common  to  the 
hill-tribes  of  India,  Burmah,  China,  and  other  rice- 
growing  countries  of  the  East.  This  is  the  old, 
original,  primitive  form  of  agriculture,  the  first 
probably  practised  by  prehistoric  man,  consisting  of 


Agriculture  16 1 

merely  clearing  a  patch  of  jungle  by  cutting  and 
burning,  making  holes  with  a  sharp  stick  in  the 
ground  thus  exposed,  and  therein  inserting  grains 
of  rice. 

The  varieties  of  rice  cultivated  in  Siam  after  the 
above  methods  number  more  than  forty,  many  of 
which,  however,  resemble  each  other  so  closely  as 
to  be  scarcely  worth  special  notice.  Others  present 
highly  distinctive  qualities  either  in  size,  color,  or 
flavor  of  the  grain  (such  as  glutinous  rice,  red  rice, 
and  the  small,  round-grained  hill  rice),  or  in  the 
nature  of  the  plant  itself.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  some  of  the  latter  varieties  have  been  evolved 
from  the  peculiar  conditions  under  which  they  have, 
during  succeeding  centuries,  been  cultivated.  Thus 
a  variety  of  common  rice,  grown  on  land  which  is 
subject  to  high  floods,  has  the  almost  miraculous 
faculty  of  growing  with  more  or  less  speed  (at  times 
as  much  as  a  foot  in  twelve  hours)  according  as  the 
water  rises,  the  plant  often  reaching  as  much  as  ten 
feet  in  length  in  its  efforts  to  keep  its  leaves  above 
water.  This  variety,  now  a  thoroughly  established 
one  in  Siam,  is  unknown  in  Burmah,  Java,  or  India. 

That  the  amount  of  rice  produced  in  Siam  has  in- 
creased enormously  of  late  years  is  evidenced  by  a 
glance  at  the  customs  figures,  which  show  that  the 


162  Kingdom  of  Siam 

amount  of  rice  annually  exported  has  risen  from 
217,000  tons  in  1885,  to  close  on  800,000  tons  last 
year.  Nevertheless,  it  is  now  fully  realized  that  the 
production  of  the  country  is  still  very  far  short  of 
what  it  might  be,  were  the  question  of  irrigation 
properly  taken  up  and  all  available  land  brought 
under  cultivation. 

Though  the  whole  valley  of  the  Menam  is  inter- 
sected by  innumerable  canals,  many  of  which  are  of 
ancient  construction,  in  the  absence  of  water-control 
these  are  useful  only  as  a  means  of  communication ; 
and  irrigation,  except  in  one  small  district  north  of 
Bangkok,  is  almost  non-existent.  Various  uncouth 
and  primitive  implements  are  used  by  the  farmers 
for  raising  water  on  to  their  fields,  implements  quite 
powerless  to  avert  total  loss  of  crop  should  water  be 
scarce,  but  irrigation  by  raising  the  general  water- 
level  above  that  of  the  land,  though  there  is  a  reason 
to  believe  it  was  once  practised,  is  a  lost  art.  The 
Government  is  now  considering  the  execution  of  a 
great  irrigation  scheme  which,  if  ever  completed, 
will  revolutionize  agriculture  in  Siam  and  inevitably 
place  her  in  the  van  of  the  rice-producing  countries 
of  the  world. 

Other  agricultural  products  of  Siam  are  maize, 
millet,  tobacco,  cotton,  sesamum,  sugar,  betel-nut, 


Agriculture  163 

betel-leaf,  pepper,  cocoanut,  yams,  beans,  gourds 
of  different  kinds,  and  a  large  variety  of  fruits. 

Maize  and  millet  are  grown  in  small  plots  in  the 
plains  and  in  fields  on  the  higher  lands.  As  they 
do  not  require  much  water,  two  crops  can  often  be 
raised  in  a  year,  but  the  amount  grown  is  small  and 
is  not  increasing. 

Tobacco  is  grown  in  considerable  quantities  in 
several  districts,  though  not  in  the  lower  plains.  In 
some  localities  it  is  cultivated  in  the  rice-fields  during 
the  dry  weather,  but  the  best  crops  are  raised  on  the 
light,  rich,  alluvial  soil  near  the  banks  of  the  upper 
reaches  of  the  Menam.  The  production  is  not  quite 
equal  to  the  amount  consumed  in  the  country,  and 
a  certain  quantity  is  imported  from  China.  The 
methods  of  cultivation  are  rough.  The  seed  is  sown 
on  ground  prepared  by  ploughing  and  hoeing,  and 
the  young  plants  are  thinned  and  occasionally 
weeded  as  they  grow  up.  Little  care  is  taken  to 
ward  off  the  attacks  of  insects,  with  the  result  that 
much  of  the  crop  is  often  lost,  while  that  which  is 
reaped  frequently  consists  of  diseased,  stunted 
plants.  Notwithstanding  this  bad  treatment,  how- 
ever, and  the  very  primitive  methods  of  drying  and 
curing  the  leaf,  the  tobacco  grown  in  some  districts, 
notably  Pitsanuloke  and  Ratburi,  is  of  a  superior 


1 64  Kingdom  of  Siam 

quality,  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  with  proper 
care  the  tobacco  of  Siam  could  at  least  compete 
with  that  of  Burmah,  India,  or  Java.  At  present 
none  is  exported,  but  were  a  foreign  market  to  be 
found,  it  is  probable  that  tobacco-growing  would 
extend  rapidly. 

Cotton  has  been  cultivated  in  Siam  from  time  im- 
memorial, all  tradition  as  to  when  and  by  whom  it 
was  introduced  having  long  been  lost.  It  is  proba- 
ble that  the  plant  was  first  introduced  from  India, 
where  it  is  known  to  have  been  used  at  least  2500 
years  ago,  the  earliest  record  of  cotton  in  China 
being  some  centuries  later.  Several  varieties  of  the 
species  Gossypium  Jierbaceum  are  known,  and  it  is 
believed  that  Gossypium  hirsutum  is  also  found  in 
Siam,  though  this  species  is  otherwise  confined  to 
the  American  continent.  Cultivation  is  carried  on 
chiefly  in  the  north,  but  is  apparently  declining 
owing  to  the  increasing  facilities  for  obtaining  for- 
eign cotton  goods.  There  is,  however,  every  reason 
to  suppose  that  cotton  could  be  successfully  culti- 
vated in  all  parts  of  the  country  and,  given  sufficient 
incentive  to  development,  might  become  one  of  the 
chief  agricultural  products  of  Siam.  The  plant, 
which  is  treated  as  an  annual  in  most  countries,  is 
here  often  allowed  to  remain  in  the  ground  for  two 


OF  THE 

[  UNIVERSITY  ) 

1 


Agriculture  165 

or  even  three  years,  bearing  crops  of  diminishing 
value  tv/ice  each  year  and  growing  into  a  straggling, 
woody  shrub  from  six  to  eight  feet  high.  This 
treatment  is  prompted  by  the  laziness  of  the  culti- 
vators, laziness  which,  however,  brings  its  own  pun- 
ishment, as  the  roots  of  the  cotton,  after  three  years* 
growth,  are  plunged  very  deep  in  the  earth  and  can 
only  be  removed  by  extensive  digging  operations. 
The  cotton  produced  in  Siam  is  nearly  all  dressed, 
spun,  and  woven  into  cloth  locally,  but  a  small 
quantity  of  the  raw  article  is  exported  overland  into 
China  and  Burmah. 

Sesamum  is  grown  sometimes  in  the  rice- fields 
before  the  rice  season  and  sometimes  on  high  land. 
It  is  easy  of  cultivation,  and  usually  commands  a 
good  price,  but  it  is  not  much  grown  in  the  lower 
plains.  Sesamum  is  cultivated  for  the  oil  contained 
in  the  seed,  which  is  extracted  by  means  of  rough 
wooden  presses  worked  by  hand  or  by  bullock 
power.  The  residue,  after  the  oil  has  been  ex- 
tracted, is  also  used  for  feeding  cattle  and  as  a 
manure.  The  oil  itself  is  used  locally  for  cooking, 
and  a  certain  amount  of  the  unpressed  seed  is  an- 
nually available  for  export  (about  four  thousand 
tons).  It  is  probable  that,  with  a  little  judicious 
encouragement,  the  cultivation  of  sesamum  might 


1 66  Kingdom  of  Siam 

be  greatly  increased,  as,  the  crop  ripening  in  the 
month  of  May,  it  could  be  largely  cultivated  by 
diligent  husbandmen  without  in  any  way  interfering 
with  rice-growing  operations. 

Sugar. — In  the  early  part  of  the  last  century 
sugar  was  very  extensively  grown  in  and  exported 
from  Siam,  and  Sir  John  Bowring,  when  he  visited 
the  country  in  1855,  predicted  that  this  would  soon 
become  its  chief  agricultural  product.  His  con- 
jectures have  not,  however,  become  facts,  for,  in 
common  with  other  cane-sugar  centres,  Siam  has 
been  defeated  by  beet.  Sugar  is  not  now  exported 
at  all,  in  fact  it  is  largely  imported,  while  sugar-cane 
continues  to  be  grown  only  for  use  as  molasses  and 
for  the  manufacture  of  coarse,  unrefined  sugar  used 
for  home  consumption.  A  good  deal  of  jaggery 
sugar  is  extracted  from  the  palmyra  and  cocoanut 
palm-trees,  but  as  the  trees  grow  chiefly  on  waste 
ground  and  receive  no  attention  from  the  cultivator, 
this  can  scarcely  be  considered  as  an  agricultural 
product. 

Betel-nut  is  grown  all  over  the  country,  but  not, 
except  in  the  Siamese  Malay  States,  in  sufficient 
quantities  to  supply  the  enormous  demand  which 
the  chewing  proclivities  of  the  Siamese  create. 
The  betel-nut  palm  is  grown  in  gardens,  of  which 


•««MMi^MiMpiw^Mi^^HHHHHMH 

,*_ 


*-*-'' 


Agriculture  167 

a  great  number  exist  in  the  suburbs  of  Bangkok. 
Once  planted  in  a  moist  situation  it  requires  abso- 
lutely no  care,  and  though  it  is  possible  that  by 
selection  and  manuring  the  fruit  might  be  im- 
proved the  Siamese  cultivator  has  never  thought  it 
worth  while  to  take  any  trouble  with  it. 

Betel-leaf  is  a  vine  and  is  grown  in  plantations. 
It  is  cultivated  round  almost  every  village  in  the 
country,  and  so  great  is  the  consumption  of  it  in 
Bangkok  that  one  of  the  large  markets  there  is  de- 
voted entirely  to  its  sale.  The  vine  requires  a  good 
deal  of  water,  and  the  ground  on  which  it  grows  must 
be  manured  and  frequently  weeded.  The  leaves  are 
fit  for  use  when  the  vine  is  a  year  old  and,  from  that 
time  on,  are  picked  as  quickly  as  they  grow,  until 
the  vine  is  about  five  years  old,  when  the  leaves  be- 
come too  small  and  strong-flavored  to  be  of  value, 
and  the  plant  is  taken  up  and  replaced  by  a  young 
one.  Betel-leaf  is  one  of  the  few  agricultural  pro- 
ducts the  cultivation  of  which  employs  a  consider- 
able amount  of  Chinese  labor,  the  others  being 
pepper,  fruit,  and  vegetables. 

Pepper  is  grown  in  some  quantity  in  the  southern- 
most parts  of  Siam.  At  one  time  the  production 
was  greater  than  it  is  now,  and  in  the  seventeenth 
century  the  monopoly  of  trading  in  it  was  a  bone  of 


168  Kingdom  of  Siam 

much  contention  between  the  European  merchants 
trading  with  the  country.  At  that  time  the  output 
was  probably  more  than  three  thousand  tons  a  year. 
Now  it  is  much  less,  the  market  during  the  last  few 
years  having  been  so  uncertain  as  almost  to  destroy 
the  industry.  Pepper  grows  as  a  vine  and  is  trained 
upon  poles,  usually  in  small  garden  plots  near  the 
villages.  It  has  a  large,  handsome  green  leaf. 
The  seed,  when  dried  and  husked,  consist  of  small, 
round  berries.  They  are  mostly  smooth  and  hard, 
but  about  one  third  of  the  produce  of  each  vine  does 
not  come  properly  to  maturity,  it  shrivelling  up, 
is  separated  from  the  good  seed,  and  sold  as  in- 
ferior, or  black  pepper. 

Cocoanut  was,  at  one  time,  largely  grown  round 
Bangkok  and  farther  inland,  but  within  the  last  few 
years  the  ravages  of  the  cocoanut  beetle  have  been 
so  terrible  that  the  cocoanut  palm  has  almost  disap- 
peared from  there.  Cocoanuts  are  now  imported  in 
great  numbers,  the  cocoanut  tree  tax  has  been  re- 
moved from  the  revenue  schedules,  and  the  country 
has  apparently  acquiesced  in  the  defeat  inflicted 
upon  it  by  the  beetle.  Yet  a  reasonable  amount  of 
care  and  forethought  is  all  that  was  ever  required  to 
overcome  the  insect  pest,  and  even  now  there  is  no 
reason  why  cocoanut  should  be  any  more  difficult 


Agriculture  169 

to  grow  in  Upper  Siam  than  it  is  in  the  Malay  States. 
On  the  coast  of  the  gulf,  and  inland  in  the  Siamese 
Malay  States,  the  cocoanut  palm  grows  magnifi- 
cently, and  not  less  than  ten  thousand  tons  of 
copra,  reported  the  finest  in  the  world,  are  annually 
exported  thence  to  Singapore.  The  cocoanut,  like 
the  betel-nut,  demands  no  care  except  that  the  soil 
in  its  neighborhood  be  kept  clean  and  open,  and  that 
a  strict  watch  be  kept  for  signs  of  beetle.  After  the 
trees  become  big,  weeds  cease  to  grow  at  their  feet, 
and  the  happy  cultivator  then  has  nothing  more 
to  do  than  to  gather  his  nuts,  of  which  an  average 
tree  produces  over  one  hundred  in  a  year.  The 
Malay,  who  is  no  more  inclined  to  work  than  most 
people,  has  discovered  the  superior  advantages  of 
cocoanut-growing  and,  at  the  present  moment,  land 
is  being  converted,  throughout  the  Malay  States, 
from  rice-land  into  cocoanut  plantations. 

The  remaining  vegetable  products  of  the  soil  of 
Siam  may  be  classed  rather  as  horticultural  than  as 
agricultural  produce.  Of  yams,  beans,  and  gourds 
many  different  kinds  are  cultivated,  but  always  in 
small  quantities  and  for  local  consumption  merely, 
and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  various  fruits, 
fibres,  dyes,  etc. 

There  has,  for  a  very  long  time,  been  a  Ministry 


1 70  Kingdom  of  Siam 

of  Agriculture  in  Siam,  but  unfortunately  in  the 
past  few  steps  have  been  taken  by  it  to  improve  or 
encourage  the  agriculture  of  the  country.  Enough 
has  been  said  to  show  that  there  is  abundant  room 
for  such  improvement  and  encouragement,  and  it  is 
fervently  hoped  that  the  scientific  agricultural  ex- 
periment laboratory  which  has  recently  been  or- 
ganized under  the  Ministry,  will  place  in  the  hands 
of  the  Government  the  means  to  give  that  assistance 
to  the  agriculturists  of  the  country  which  alone  can 
enable  Siam  to  keep  a  place  in  the  keenly  contested 
produce-markets  of  the  world. 


CHAPTER  XII 

FORESTRY 


171 


CHAPTER  XII 

FORESTRY  IN  SIAM,  BY  THE  CONSERVATOR  OF 
FORESTS 

AT  present  by  far  the  most  valuable  tree  in  Siam 
is  the  teak.  The  forests  in  which  this  species 
occurs  are  situated  in  the  dry  regions  of  the  Mon- 
thon  Payupp,  and  those  parts  of  the  Monthons 
Nakon  Sawan  and  Pitsanuloke  which  lie  north  of  lati- 
tude 17°,  the  average  annual  rainfall  being  probably 
under  fifty  inches.  These  regions,  which  are  hilly 
throughout,  are  drained  by  the  Salween  on  the  west, 
and  the  Mekong  on  the  east,  while  the  numerous 
feeders  of  the  Menam  water  the  whole  of  the  cen- 
tral portion,  all  affording  the  waterways  by  which 
the  timber  is  floated  out. 

Where  conditions  are  suitable  teak  occurs  in  de- 
ciduous forests  up  to  2500  feet  elevation,  mixed  with 
many  other  species,  of  which  the  following  are  some 
of  the  most  important : 

Xylia  dolabriformis,  Eugenia  jambolana,  Bombax 
173 


1 74  Kingdom  of  Siam 

insignia,  Sterculia  (various],  Pteros  pernum  semisa- 
gittatum,  Garuga  pinnata,  Bur  sera  serrata,  Semecar- 
pus  panduratus,  Spondias  magnifera,  Terminalia 
tomentella,  Terminalia  crenulata,  Terminalia  be- 
lerica,  Anogeissus  acuminatus,  Lager stroemia  flos 
regina,  Lagerstroemia  tomentosa,  Homalium  tomen- 
tosum,  Cordia  grandis,  Cassia  Siamea,  Odinawodier, 
etc.,  etc. 

Prior  to  the  year  1896,  although  teak  had  been 
worked  very  extensively  in  the  Menam  and  Salween 
basins,  practically  no  attempts  had  been  made  to 
control  these  workings.  It  is  true  that  such  work 
was  supposed  to  be  restricted  to  forests  for  which 
leases  had  been  granted  by  the  Government,  and  the 
forms  of  lease  then  in  use  contained  certain  con- 
ditions as  to  minimum  girth,  etc.,  which,  although 
inadequate,  were  apparently  at  the  time  considered 
a  sufficient  safeguard  for  the  future  of  the  forests, 
but  as  no  Government  official  was  directly  responsi- 
ble, not  only  were  the  conditions  of  leases  not  en- 
forced, but  very  many  unleased  forests  were  worked 
under  the  authority  of  the  local  officials. 

Forestry  in  Siam  (if  President  Roosevelt's  defini- 
tion is  to  be  accepted)  may  be  said  to  have  com- 
menced only  in  1896-97,  when  the  Government 
secured  the  services  of  an  officer  of  the  Imperial 


Forestry  175 

Forest  Service  of  exceptional  abilities  on  deputation 
from  the  Government  of  India. 

This  officer  at  once  directed  his  attention  to  the 
teak  forests,  and  acting  under  his  advice  the  follow- 
ing measures  were  taken  to  protect  the  very  valuable 
properties  of  the  Government. 

(1)  A  Forest  Department  was  established  with  an 
European  staff  of  officers,  recruited  as  far  as  possible 
from  the  Imperial  and  Provincial  Forest  Services  of 
India  and  Burmah,  not  the  least  important  of  whose 
duties  being  the  training  of  selected  Siamese  youths 
with  a  view  to  their  filling  responsible  positions  in 
the  department  in  the  future. 

(2)  The  promulgation  of  various  royal  decrees  by 
His  Majesty,  providing  for  the  better  protection  and 
control  of  the  forests,  and  absolutely  prohibiting 
any  work  except  under  a  lease. 

(3)  The  inspection  and  survey  of  all  leased  forests 
by  Forest  Officers  with  a  view  to  ascertaining  the 
future  possibilities  of  the  forests  and  also  further 
periodical  inspections  to  ensure  strict  observance  of 
conditions  of  leases. 

(4)  The  training  of  selected  Siamese  at  the  Indian 
Forest  School  at  Dehra  Dun. 

In  1897,  with  the  consent  of  the  lessees  a  new 
form  of  lease  was  substituted  for  that  under  which 


176  Kingdom  of  Siam 

they  had  hitherto  worked,  the  conditions  of  this 
lease  embodying  the  more  important  restrictions 
necessary  for  the  future  welfare  of  the  forests, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  raising  of 
the  minimum  girth  from  fifty-one  inches  to  76^ 
inches. 

In  1900-01  most  of  the  old  leases  expired  and  a 
further  new  form  of  lease  was  brought  into  force  for 
such  forests  as  Government  decided  should  still  be 
worked.  This  form  provided  for  the  closing  of  one 
half  6f  the  original  areas  and  prohibited  any  further 
girdling  by  lessees. 

The  royalty  was  also  raised  from  4.25  Rs.  a  log 
to  10  Rs.  per  large  and  6  Rs.  per  small  log. 

A  short  account  of  the  system  under  which  teak 
is  worked  may  be  of  interest.  The  trees  selected 
are  first  killed  (girdled)  by  cutting  a  ring  round  the 
tree  near  the. ground,  well  into  the  heart-wood. 

They  are  then  left  standing  for  two  years  at  least 
to  season,  when  they  are  felled,  logged,  and  dragged 
usually  by  elephants,  into  the  nearest  floating 
streams.  Parties  of  elephants  are  also  kept  working 
the  main  streams  to  break  up  stacks  and  keep  the 
timber  moving. 

Across  the  flat  country  carts  are  now  being  largely 
introduced,  dragged  by  buffaloes,  as  such  work  can 


Forestry  177 

be  done  in  the  hot  weather  when  elephants  cannot 
be  used. 

Various  mechanical  contrivances  have  also  been 
introduced  by  the  Borneo  Company,  Limited,  and 
the  Bombay  Burmah  Trading  Corporation,  Limited, 
with  wire  ropes  to  drag  the  logs  over  hills  which  are 
too  steep  for  elephants. 

Owing  to  the  many  rapids  on  the  Me  Ping,  Me 
Yome,  Me  Wang,  and  Me  Nam,  logs  are  floated 
singly  until  arrival  at  Raheng,  Sawankaloke,  or 
Utradit,  when  they  are  made  into  rafts  varying  in 
shape  and  number  of  logs  according  to  the  river, 
and  thus  conveyed  to  the  duty  station  at  Paknampo, 
where  they  are  examined,  measured,  and  duty  due 
collected  by  a  Forest  Department  establishment  be- 
fore proceeding  to  Bangkok.  The  average  annual 
arrivals  at  Paknampo  amount  to  some  one  hundred 
thousand  logs. 

Salween  timber  is  floated  singly  to  Kyodan,  a 
rafting  station  some  seventy  miles  north  of  Moul- 
mein,  then  rafted  to  Kado,  where  the  Government 
inspection  and  collection  of  duties  is  carried  out 
before  passing  to  Moulmein. 

Average  annual  arrivals  from  Siam  at  Kado 
amount  to  some  sixty  thousand  logs. 

As  regards  the  other  valuable  species  of  timber 


178  Kingdom  of  Siam 

trees  in  the  north,  these  at  present  cannot  be 
worked  north  of  Raheng,  Sawankaloke,  or  Utradit, 
as,  being  heavy  woods,  they  require  to  be  floated 
lashed  to  bamboos,  and  too  large  a  percentage 
would  be  wrecked  in  the  rapids  to  make  it  a  paying 
business.  A  railway  to  Chiengmai  is,  however,  under 
course  of  construction  which  when  completed  will 
tap  a  very  large  area  of  practically  virgin  forest,  so 
far  as  these  species  are  concerned. 

Whereas  teak,   the  most  valuable  tree   in   Siam, 

and  the  most  largely  exported,  is  confined  almost 

.     .       entirely  to   the  hilly  tracts  in   Northern 

Forestry  in  J  J 

siam.  Siam,  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  Lower 

Siam  contains  no  valuable  forests;  far  from  it. 
Although  at  the  present  time  little  is  done  to  foster 
forestry  operations  in  the  south,  the  Government 
being  fully  occupied  in  looking  after  its  teak  forests 
in  the  north,  the  time  is  not  so  far  distant  when  the 
forests  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  Lower  Siam  will 
constitute  one  more  of  the  many  valuable  natural 
assets  of  the  country.  The  areas  of  these  forests  are 
very  extensive.  On  the  east  they  extend  from  the 
borders  of  the  Krung  Kao  Monthon  all  along  the 
Korat  Railway  to  a  short  distance  beyond  Buriram 
at  the  eastern  extremity  of  Monthon  Nakon  Racha- 
sima.  This  same  block  extends  south  into  Monthon 


Forestry  1 79 

Pachin.  On  the  southeast  a  great  belt  of  forest 
extends  through  the  coast  districts  of  Chantaburi 
and  Pachin,  while  on  the  southwest  the  peninsular 
districts  of  Singora,  Tringanu,  Kedah,  are  one 
compact  mass  of  dense  forests. 

The  question  that  naturally  arises  in  regard  to 
such  extensive  forests  is,  Of  what  value  are  they  to 
the  Government  or  to  any  one  else?  Though  their 
value  is  to  a  certain  extent  still  a  matter  for  the 
future  to  decide,  it  must  not  be  supposed  that 
nothing  has  yet  been  done  to  prove  the  existence 
of  many  valuable  woods  in  them. 

The  first  we  may  mention  and  at  present  the  most 
valuable  is  the  well-known  rosewood  (Siamese, 
Mai  Pa  Yung]  Dalbergia  (sp.).  This  extends  in 
suitable  localities  throughout  the  forest  area  of  Na- 
kon  Rachasima  and  Pachin,  and  owing  to  the  facil- 
ities of  transport  afforded  by  the  Korat  Railway 
considerable  quantities  are  exported  yearly  to  Bang- 
kok and  find  their  way  to  Hong-Kong  and  Singa- 
pore and  even  to  London,  where  it  is  in  demand  as 
a  furniture  wood. 

Other  very  useful  woods  are  largely  exploited 
from  this  area,  such  as  Dipterocarpus  tubulatus, 
Shorca  obtusa,  and  Pentaccme  siamensis  (Siamese 
Mai  Teng-Lang}\  they  are  used  in  Bangkok  as 


i  So  Kingdom  of  Siam 

posts  for  buildings,  but  more  especially  for  the  rail- 
way, the  sleepers  for  which,  as  well  as  the  wood  for 
bridge  construction,  having  been  from  the  very  com- 
mencement supplied  entirely  from  the  last  two  spe- 
cies, to  which  uses  they  are  admirably  suited. 

In  spite  of  such  a  great  demand  there  are  still 
enormous  tracts  of  these  woods  which  have  never 
yet  been  touched  by  the  axe. 

In  addition  to  the  above  may  be  mentioned  Ptero- 
carpus  indicus  (Mai  Pradoo),  a  valuable  furniture 
wood,  supplies  of  which  are  only  awaiting  better 
means  of  communication  and  transport  to  be  worked. 

Turning  to  the  woods  of  the  peninsular  districts 
we  find  along  the  coasts  of  Petchaburi  and  Cham- 
pawn  a  kind  of  boxwood  (Mai  Put),  much  sought 
after  by  Japanese  traders,  who  export  it  for  use  in 
wood-carving. 

These  are  but  a  few  of  the  many  valuable  woods, 
which  as  time  goes  on  will  no  doubt  be  found  in  the 
as  yet  almost  unexplored  forest  of  the  peninsula. 
Already  foreign  firms,  who  have  recognized  the 
value  of  these  forests,  are  applying  for  concessions 
to  work  them,  and  when,  in  addition  to  the  woods 
mentioned,  the  many  other  species  useful  for  boat- 
building, house  construction,  and  other  local  require- 
ments, such  as  Xylia.  dolabriforntis  (Mai 


Forestry 


181 


Hopca  odorata  (Mai  Takioi),  Lagerstrcemia  flos 
regina  (Mai  Tabak),  ScJileicJiera  trijuga  (Mai  Mak- 
raw\  Nauclea  cordifolia  (Mai  Kwow],  and  a  host  of 
others  are  considered,  the  value  of  these  forests  to 
Siam  can  hardly  be  overestimated. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

JUSTICE 


183 


CHAPTER   XIII 

JUSTICE,    BY   THE    JUDICIAL    ADVISER 

THE  Ministry  of  Justice  is  quite  a  recent  creation, 
as  previous  to  the  year  1892  there  were  as  many 
jurisdictions  as  departments,  and  each  de- 
partment frequently  tried  cases  concern-  ' 
ing  themselves  either  as  defendants  or  plaintiffs. 
There  were  restrictions  on  their  arbitrary  powers, 
but  these  restrictions  were  often  overridden  by  a 
powerful  head  of  a  department.  The  board  in 
whose  hands  the  decision  of  an  appeal  was  sup- 
posed to  lie  were  not  strong  enough  to  enforce 
any  judgment  affecting  the  department  of  a  strong 
minister  or  against  an  influential  nobleman.  Be- 
sides the  courts  there  existed  what  might  be  called 
the  germ  of  a  Ministry  of  Justice  in  the  board  named 
Lukkhun.  This  board  dealt  with  cases  which  were 
not  directly  concerned  with  the  departments  and 
with  any  appeals  which  the  departments  were  pleased 
to  send  to  them.  But  they  had  no  real  power. 

185 


1 86  Kingdom  of  Siam 

The  work  of  deciding  cases  was  divided  amongst 
different  sets  of  officials.  The  actual  recording  of 
evidence  was  done  by  the  Talakarn  (or  judges);  the 
guilt  or  responsibility  of  the  parties  was  decided  on 
the  records  by  the  Lukkhun.  The  Pooprap,  or 
officials,  who  were  supposed  to  know  the  law,  fixed 
the  punishment  or  amount  of  judgment. 

All  judicial  officials  received  only  nominal  salaries, 
and  it  can  be  well  understood  that  chaos  reigned 
supreme,  and  that  justice  was  only  likely  to  be  done 
when  money  and  influence  were  on  the  side  of  the 
plaintiff. 

In  the  provinces  the  executive  officers  acted  as 
judges,  and  could  do  pretty  well  as  they  pleased. 

In  1892  the  Ministry  of  Justice  was  established, 
and  all  the  judicial  functions  of  the  various  depart- 
ments, with  the  exception  of  the  military 

New  System. 

and  naval  courts  and  the  palace  court, 
were  consolidated  under  the  control  of  a  Minister 
of  Justice.  This  change  was  confined  to  Bangkok 
at  first,  but  in  1895  all  the  central  provinces  were 
brought  under  the  same  control.  The  outlying 
provinces  of  Petchaboon,  Udawn,  Isarn,  and  parts 
of  the  Malay  States  still  remain  as  before,  but  ap- 
peal from  the  courts  in  these  districts  are  now  for- 
warded to  the  Appeal  Court  at  Bangkok.  It  is 


I- 


Justice  187 

intended  to  incorporate  the  whole  of  the    interior 
gradually,  as  time  and  money  will  permit. 

At  present  every  province  is  divided  into  Muangs 
with  a  District  Court  (San  Muang)  capable  of  trying 
cases  up  to  five  thousand  ticals  in  value 

Courts. 

and  criminal  cases  involving  punishment 
not  exceeding  ten  years'  imprisonment.  An  appeal 
lies  to  the  Circle  Court  (San  Monthori),  established 
in  the  capital  of  each  province.  This  court  is 
capable  of  dealing  with  every  kind  of  case,  both  civil 
and  criminal,  and  the  cases  from  the  District  Court 
and  those  entered  originally  in  the  Circle  Court  are 
subject  to  appeal  to  Bangkok.  The  Bangkok  Ap- 
peal Court  is  in  two  divisions,  one  of  five  judges 
dealing  with  appeals  from  the  provinces,  and  one  of 
three  dealing  with  appeals  from  Bangkok  and  from 
the  provinces  not  yet  incorporated  under  this 
ministry. 

A  final  appeal  lies  to  His  Majesty  the  King,  who 
has  delegated  his  duties  to  the  tribunal  composed  of 
five  members  commissioned  under  the  Royal  Sign 
Manual.  This  tribunal  may  be  termed  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Appeal  (San  Dika}. 

The  procedure,  both  civil  and  criminal,  was  pro- 
mulgated in  1896.  It  was  based  on  the  procedure 
then  in  force  in  the  British  Consular  Court  at  Bang- 


1 88  Kingdom  of  Siam 

kok,  and  is  essentially  English  in  form.     In  the  crim- 
inal procedure  it  is   noteworthy    that    the  accused 
generally  makes  his  statement  as  soon  as 

Procedure. 

the  charge  is  read  over  to  him,  and  the 
statement  taken  at  that  stage  of  the  proceedings 
helps  immensely  to  have  the  truth  brought  to  light, 
as  the  accused  generally  proffers  a  complete  narra- 
tive of  all  that  happened  from  his  point  of  view, 
and,  if  guilty,  he  frequently  incriminates  himself. 

The  law  is,   of  course,   Siamese,  and,  thanks  to 
the  labors  of  H.  R.  H.  Prince  Rajburi,  the  present 

Minister  of  Justice,  it  can  be  consulted 

Law. 

in  a  handy  and  convenient  form.  He 
brought  out  an  edition  of  the  ancient  laws  in  two 
volumes  with  footnotes  and  a  full  index  show- 
ing which  sections  have  been  modified  or  repealed, 
and  has  also  edited  recent  enactments  up  to  the 
year  1901.  The  principal  decisions  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Appeal  since  the  year  1899  have  also  been 
published  under  his  superintendence.  These  form 
the  law  reports  of  Siam.  The  student  of  Siamese 
law  can  thus  easily  ascertain  all  the  written  law  on 
any  subject,  and  has  a  fair  amount  of  judge-made 
law  for  his  guidance  in  addition  to  lectures  delivered 
in  the  law  school  by  the  minister  and  other  Siamese 
judges  on  special  branches  of  law. 


Justice  189 

The  ancient  laws  of  Siam  are  fortunately  worded 
in  very  wide  terms,  and  are  elastic  enough,  with  the 
exercise  of  a  little  ingenuity,  to  meet  nearly  all  the 
requirements  of  modern  conditions  in  this  country. 
In  civil  cases  where  the  law  is  silent  new  paths  can 
always  be  struck  out,  but  in  criminal  cases  this  is 
not  quite  so  feasible.  The  importation  of  brand- 
new  codes  would  doubtless  make  the  work  of  the 
judges  easier,  but  the  advantages  of  working  on  a 
system  known  to  the  people  for  centuries  are  obvi- 
ous. As  substantial  justice  can  always  be  meted 
out  if  the  judges  display  ordinary  intelligence  and 
impartiality,  the  changes  of  the  future  are  likely  to 
be  confined  to  the  gradual  amendment  of  the  present 
groundwork. 

One  of  the  most  striking  features  of  the  judicial 
system  of  this  country  is  the  facility  and  cheapness 
of  appeal,  and  the  systematic  way  in 
which  it  is  made  use  of  by  most  litigants. 
When  this  department  was  first  established  the 
minister  rightly  considered  that  as  most  of  the 
judges  were  new  and  untried  men  and  generally 
youthful,  appeal  should  be  made  as  easy  as  possible. 
Appeal  by  post  from  the  provinces  is  the  result. 
It  costs  only  two  and  a  half  per  cent,  on  the 
amount  involved,  and  in  criminal  cases  nothing  at 


1 90  Kingdom  of  Siam 

all.  It  is  not  necessary  to  appear  personally  before 
the  Appeal  Court  nor  to  engage  counsel.  The  con- 
sequence is  that  the  Appeal  Courts  are  overwhelmed 
with  work.  Last  year  the  two  divisions  of  the  Ap- 
peal Court  disposed  of  3100  cases,  of  which  414  were 
arrears  from  the  previous  year.  Of  these  appeals 
1175  were  sent  up  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  Appeal. 

One  of  the  most  important  institutions  under  the 
Ministry  is  the  law  school.  This  is  only  in  its  in- 
Law  fancy  yet,  but  on  the  attention  and  money 

school.  spent  on  the  training  of  the  future  judges 
depends  to  a  great  extent  the  successful  administra- 
tion of  justice. 

The  first  object  that  has  been  steadily  kept  in 
view  in  regard  to  judicial  appointments  has  been  to 
eliminate  those  of  the  old-fashioned  officials  whose 
ideas  as  to  progress,  punctuality,  and  rapidity  of 
work  are  not  abreast  with  the  times.  The  result  is 
that  already  a  large  proportion  of  the  judges  are 
young  men. 

The  law  school  was  started  in  1897,  and  the  aver- 
age number  of  students  has  been  annually  increas- 
ing. The  number  on  the  books  last  year  was  375, 
and  the  previous  year  292,  so  that  it  is  evident  that 
the  judicial  career  and  practice  in  the  Siamese  courts 
is  becoming  more  attractive.  The  present  lecturer 


Justice  191 

is  the  judge  of  the  Court  of  Foreign  Causes,  and  as 
his  court  is  by  no  means  a  busy  one,  he  can  give  the 
best  part  of  his  time  to  the  school.  He  is  an  old 
student  and  received  his  final  education  in  England. 

The  examination,  which  this  year  was  conducted 
under  the  supervision  of  H.  R.  H.  the  Minister  of 
Justice,  the  Under  Secretary,  and  two  other  exam- 
iners, is  pretty  stiff.  The  papers,  in  fact,  bear  a 
marked  resemblance  to  ordinary  bar  examination 
papers  in  England,  turned  into  Siamese  with,  it 
must  be  said,  additional  puzzles  peculiar  to  Siamese 
law.  The  number  of  students  who  succeed  in  pass- 
ing this  examination  is  in  very  small  proportion  to 
the  number  going  up.  Since  1897  only  fifty-four 
candidates  have  received  the  title  of  Advocate,  or 
an  average  of  nine  per  cent. 

Provision  has  been  made  for  the  training  in 
Europe  of  three  of  the  best  students  who  know  a 
foreign  language.  There  they  remain  three  or  four 
years,  receiving  first  general  education  and  latterly 
tuition  in  law. 

The  sum  allowed  this  year  for  the  total  adminis- 
tration of  justice  in  Siam  (exclusive  of  the  out- 
lying districts  already  mentioned)  was 

Staff. 

1,204,194    ticals    or,    roughly    speaking, 

about  ;£6o,ooo.     This  includes  all  expenditure  on 


i92  Kingdom  of  Siam 

the  law  school,  new  buildings,  repairs,  etc.  It 
seems  at  first  sight  a  very  inadequate  sum  with 
which  to  run  a  department  of  this  size.  The  whole 
estimate  would,  in  fact,  only  provide  salaries  for  a 
dozen  judges  in  England  or  India,  but  it  does  not 
bear  a  very  unfair  proportion  to  the  general  revenue 
of  the  country,  which  is  only  40,000,000  ticals,  or 
say  £2,000,000.  In  any  case  no  matter  how  neces- 
sary a  larger  sum  may  be,  it  could  not  be  obtained 
without  great  difficulty. 

There  were  on  the  list  of  the  staff  at  the  end  of 
this  year  168  judges,  of  whom  41  are  stationed  in 
Bangkok  province,  and  773  other  officials,  or  a  total 
of  941  on  the  pay-sheet  of  this  Ministry. 

The  officials  in  the  Ministry  itself,  or  the  controll- 
ing branch,  number  fifty-two.  It  is  satisfactory  to  be 
able  to  note  that  the  judges  receive  very  fair  pay. 
They  begin  at  240  ticals  a  month  (say  £150  a  year) 
and  rise  to  800  ticals  a  month  (£500  a  year).  The 
executive  branch  of  the  Government  service  is,  how- 
ever, better  paid  than  the  judicial;  the  position  is 
more  honorable  and  the  work  entails  less  drudgery. 
A  judge  in  Siam  has  in  the  past  been  looked  upon 
as  a  very  subordinate  kind  of  official,  and  he  is  just 
now  beginning  to  lose  the  stigma  of  belonging  to  an 
inferior  service.  The  best  men  in  this  country  are 


Justice  193 

attracted   to  the  Ministry  of  the   Interior  or  the 
executive. 

There  is  provision  in  the  estimates  for  eight  assist- 
ant legal  advisers,  but  at  present  the  staff  is  reduced 
to  three,  one  of  whom  is  on  leave.  The 

Assistant 

assistant   legal   advisers   have,    with   the  Legal 

Advisers. 

exception    of   one    Japanese,    who    is    a 
graduate    of    Yale    University,    been    drawn    from 
Belgium. 

The  Minister  of  Justice  has  issued  at  various  times 
instructions  to  judges  which  have  been  collected 
and  form  a  small  volume  of  about  fifty  instructions 
pages.  They  explain  in  a  clear  and  defi- 
nite way  many  points  which  have  proved  a  source 
of  doubt  to  the  judges,  and  also  lay  down  regula- 
tions for  the  carrying  out  of  details  of  court  work. 

The  Bangkok  prisons  only  are  under  the  control 
of  the  Ministry  of  Justice.  The  Central  Prison 
contains  an  average  of  1 500  prisoners  and 

Prisons. 

the  short-sentence  and  under-trial  prison 

about  600.     The  total  cost  of  these  two  prisons  last 

year  was  230,850  ticals,  or  say  £11,500. 

The  provincial  prisons  are  under  the  control  of 
the  Ministry  of  the  Interior. 

The  penalty  of  death  is  carried  out  by  beheading, 

and  during  the  year  twelve  criminals  were  executed. 

13 


i94  Kingdom  of  Siam 

One  died  before  the  death  penalty  could  be  inflicted. 
Death  These  criminals  were  all  convicted  of  more 

Sentences.        than  usually  atrocioUS  murders. 

It  is  satisfactory  to  note  that  the  registers  and 
General  other  books  of  the  courts  are  well  kept, 
Remarks.  ancj  tke  returns  are  made  with  praise- 

worthy  punctuality. 

The  returns  of  cases  for  the  whole  Bangkok  prov- 
ince were  received  at  the  Ministry  within  fifteen 
days  of  the  close  of  the  year.  Typewriters,  both 
Siamese  and  English,  are  extensively  used  in  the 
courts,  and  this  accounts  to  a  great  extent  for  the 
dispatch  with  which  the  general  work  of  the  courts 
is  conducted. 

STATISTICS 

The  following  statistics  are  for  the  province  of 
Bangkok.  A  short  summary  of  the  statistics  for 
the  provinces  is  added  at  the  end. 

The  total  number  of  cases  before  the  courts  in  the 

Bangkok  province  during  the  year  was   11,470,  a 

slight  increase  on  last  year  (i  1,242).    Most 

Cases  in 

Bangkok        of  these  cases  arose  in  the  city  of  Bang- 
kok, the  five  district  courts  in  the  province 
accounting  for  1881   only.     Of  this  total  of  n,47° 
only  229  were  pending  at  the  end  of  the  year. 


Justice  195 

Of  the  total  number  of  cases  8140  were  criminal. 
There  were  57  convictions  for  homicide  (26  being 
manslaughter),  a  decrease  of  27.  The  criminal 
previous  year  seems  to  have  been  much 
above  the  average.  For  theft  there  were  1479  con- 
victions,  nearly  double  the  year  120,  but  about  the 
same  as  the  year  119. 

There  were  altogether  a  total  of  3418  cases  which 
ended  in  conviction  and  2637  in  acquittal.  The 
convictions  were  forty-two  per  cent,  of  Percentage  of 
the  cases  disposed  of,  a  proportion  which  c 
is  very  much  the  same  as  last  year.  This  result, 
however,  is  unsatisfactory. 

The  percentage  of  sixty-two  in  the  central  crim- 
inal court  was  fairly  satisfactory,  and  the  Attorney- 
General's  Department,  which  is  concerned  almost 
entirely  with  the  serious  crimes  dealt  with  in  the 
central  criminal  court,  obtained  ninety-four  per 
cent,  of  convictions  out  of  the  857  cases  they  took 
up.  This  percentage  includes  cases  which  they 
appealed  and  were  successful  with  in  the  Appeal 
Court. 

In  the  police  courts  the  police  act  as  prosecutors, 
and  the  percentage  of  convictions  in  the  chief  police 
court  in  Bangkok  (Borispah  No.  i)  was  fifty-five. 
The  average  percentage  of  convictions  in  the  district 


196  Kingdom  of  Siam 

courts  was  thirty-four  and  in  Nontaburi  twenty- 
three. 

The  magistrates  can  only  deal  with  the  evidence 
put  before  them,  and  should  any  prosecutor  think 
he  has  not  obtained  justice  he  has  the  remedy  of 
appeal,  which  costs  nothing  except  some  trouble. 
Out  of  the  3801  cases  before  the  Borispah  Court 
No.  i  there  were  only  73  appeals,  which  tends  to 
show  that  dissatisfaction  with  the  judgments  does 
not  account  for  the  large  percentage  of  acquittals. 

Three  persons  were  sentenced  to  death,  12  to  im- 
prisonment for  life,  47  to  upwards  of  ten  years,  93 
to  a  term  not  exceeding  ten  years,  465 

Punishments. 

to  periods  varying  from  six  months  to 
three  years,  and  1813  to  less  than  six  months. 
These  punishments  are  all  heavier  than  during  the 
previous  year,  and  in  that  year  penalties  were 
heavier  than  in  the  year  119.  The  courts  are  be- 
ginning to  deal  much  more  severely  with  crime  than 
in  past  times,  and  this  tendency  is  in  the  right 
direction. 

The  number  of  civil  cases  shows  a  decrease  from 
4119  to  3330.  The  most  numerous  cases  were  for 

damages  in  assault,  which  is  freely  allowed 

Civil  Cases. 

by  Siamese  law.  There  were  965  of  these 
cases.  There  were  387  land  cases,  386  proceedings 


Justice  197 

for  divorce,  154  cases  of  malicious  injury  to  prop- 
erty, 338  on  commercial  contracts,  51  actions  against 
persons  who  are  termed  co-respondents  in  English 
law,  97  cases  regarding  deceased  estates,  60  of  de- 
posit for  safekeeping,  and  many  other  miscellaneous 
actions. 

The  amount  of  work  in  the  Court  of  Foreign 
Causes,  the  court  in  which  foreigners  are  plaintiffs, 
is  very  small  in  comparison  with  the  ordinary  work 
of  the  courts.  There  were  only  forty-seven  cases 
this  year,  but  this  does  not  include  petty  cases  in 
the  police  courts,  of  which  there  are  not  separate 
returns.  Twelve  of  these  cases  were  appealed,  and 
judgment  reversed  in  one  only;  British  subjects 
form  the  majority  of  plaintiffs,  but  suits  forwarded 
by  seven  other  different  consulates  were  also  dis- 
posed of. 

The  division  of  the  Appeal  Court  dealing  with 
Bangkok  had  before  it  1179  cases,  of  which  10  only 
were  carried  forward  as  arrears,  and  the          Appeal 
division  for  the  provinces  had  2394  cases 
of  which  463  had  to  be  carried  forward. 

The  division  for  the  provinces  is  being  reinforced 
by  two  additional  judges  this  year,  and  this  will 
relieve  the  strain  considerably. 

In  the  Appeal  Court  were  confirmed  seventy-five 


198  Kingdom  of  Siam 

per  cent,  of  the  judgments,  amended  six  per  cent., 
and  reversed  nineteen  per  cent.  Last  year  seventy- 
two  per  cent,  were  confirmed. 

The  Supreme  Court  of  Appeal  (Dika  Court)  is 
not  under  the  control  of  the  Ministry  of  Justice, 
supreme  The  judges  are  appointed  by  His  Majesty, 

A°Uea°f  anc^  t^le  exPenses  are  Paid  out  of  the 
Legislative  Council  budget.  There  were 
1 175  cases  before  the  court  for  adjudication,  of  which 
443  were  arrears  from  the  previous  year. 

The  Japanese  Legal  Adviser  was  permanently  at- 
tached to  the  court  during  the  year,  and  the  Minis- 
ter of  Justice  and  the  Judicial  Adviser  also  hold 
commissions.  The  Minister  of  Justice  and  the  Ju- 
dicial Adviser,  however,  only  sit,  as  a  rule,  in  more 
than  usually  important  cases,  or  where  decision  is 
to  form  a  precedent  for  the  application  of  Siamese 
law  to  modern  conditions. 

Of  the  1175  cases  827  were  disposed  of  (as  com- 
pared with  350  last  year),  but  still  leaving  348  to 
be  carried  forward.  The  number  of  appeals  from 
Bangkok  and  the  provinces  were  about  equally 
divided.  There  were  12  cases  from  the  Special 
Land  Commissioner's  Court.  The  number  of  really 
difficult  cases  is  comparatively  small. 

The  total  number  of  cases  before  the  provincial 


Justice  199 

courts  was  17,726,  or  923  less  than  last  Casesinthe 
year.  The  number  of  arrears  at  the  close  Provinces, 
of  the  year  was  1005. 

Criminal  and  civil  cases  were  about  equal  in  num- 
ber, 1000  of  the  former  and  8143  of  the  latter.  In- 
cluding the  returns  for  Bangkok  already  commented 
upon,  the  total  number  of  cases  in  all  courts  under 
the  Ministry  of  Justice  during  the  year  was  29,196. 
Of  these,  27,962  were  disposed  of,  carrying  forward 
1234,  or  four  per  cent.,  as  arrears.  This  percentage 
of  arrears  is  very  satisfactory,  and  is  due  to  the 
stringent  orders  that  were  issued  by  the  Ministry  of 
Justice  some  time  ago. 

The  number  of  appeals  disposed  of  by  the  circle 
courts  (San  Monthoti)  was  32 10.  Of  these, 

Appeals. 

2175,  or  sixty-eight  per  cent.,  were  con- 
firmed. 

The  district  courts  (San  Muang),  whose  appeals 
were  thus  dealt  with,  are  on  the  whole  fairly  satis- 
factory, judging  from  statistics.  It  has  to  be  remem- 
bered that  some  of  the  cases  reversed  in  the  circle 
courts  (San  Monthori)  may  have  been  upheld  in  the 
Appeal  Court  at  Bangkok  and  that  only  nineteen 
per  cent,  of  the  total  number  of  cases  dealt  with 
were  appealed  from  the  district  courts. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
EDUCATION 


201 


CHAPTER   XIV 

EDUCATION,    BY   THE   DIRECTOR   OF   EDUCATION 

A  LTHOUGH  education  on  modern  lines  is  a 
**•  thing  of  quite  recent  introduction  into  Siam, 
the  temple  schools  have  provided  a  certain  amount 
of  instruction  from  time  immemorial.  True,  it  was 
of  a  primitive  kind,  but  its  graduates  were  able  to 
read  and  write  their  own  language,  and  in  some 
cases  acquired  more  or  less  knowledge  of  the  sacred 
language,  Pali.  Instruction  was  given  by  the  priests 
attached  to  the  temples  in  which  the  schools  were 
held.  Before  the  great  movement  of  the  Siamese 
nation  seaward  had  begun,  when  Sukkothai  was  the 
capital  of  the  state,  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries,  there  were  schools  and  scholars  in  Siam. 
In  this  respect  the  condition  of  Siam  was  very  much 
the  same  as  that  of  the  great  Western  nations. 
Education  centred  in  the  Wat  (temple),  as  it  did  in 
the  monastery  in  Europe,  and  Pali  took  the  place  of 
Latin  to  the  studiously  inclined.  It  is  only  within 

203 


204  Kingdom  of  Siam 

the  last  hundred  years  that  Siam  has  fallen  so  far 
behind  Western  nations.  Probably  even  fifty  years 
ago  the  percentage  of  illiteracy  in  the  capital  was 
not  much  greater  than  in  many  capitals  of  Europe ; 
but  whereas  Europe  has  forged  ahead  with  amazing 
rapidity  Siam  has  until  recently  been  content  to 
stand  still. 

That  attitude  has  now  gone  and  for  ever,  and  the 
people  themselves  are  qualified  to  attain  to  any 
standard.  Naturally  quick  and  retentive  they  have 
a  genuine  love  and  desire  for  knowledge  and  respect 
for  the  possessor  of  it.  To  this  has  latterly  been 
added  an  appreciation  of  the  benefits,  moral  and 
material,  likely  to  accrue  from  it. 

The  zeal  for  education  has  been  a  part  of  the  gen- 
eral quickening  of  the  nation  that  the  last  few  years 
have  witnessed,  and  has  met  with  the  approval  and 
encouragement  of  His  Majesty  the  King  and  of  all 
in  high  places.  The  first-fruits  of  this  zeal  was 
the  establishment  of  an  Education  Department. 
Formed  at  first  as  a  separate  department,  it  was 
afterwards  enlarged  into  a  Ministry  of  Public  In- 
struction, taking  cognizance  of  education  in  general, 
ecclesiastical  matters,  the  superintendence  and  up- 
keep of  hospitals,  and  text-book  compilation.  In 
this  form  the  Department  of  Education  has  had 


UNIVERSITY 

OF 


Education  205 

an  existence  of  about  fourteen  years.  At  certain 
periods  of  its  history  it  cannot,  perhaps,  be  said  to 
have  been  particularly  active,  but  of  its  progress  in 
the  last  few  years  there  can  be  no  question. 

The  work  of  education  is  always  gradual,  and  it  is 
impossible  to  point  to  immediate  results  such  as  can 
be  produced  by  effort  directed  in  most  other  ways, 
but  there  are  already  many  tangible  evidences  of  the 
work  done. 

Primary  schools  have  been  established  in  every 
part  of  the  capital  and  are  attended  by  ten  thousand 
scholars.  In  these  a  four-years  course  of  instruction 
is  given  in  the  ordinary  subjects,  much  the  same  as 
in  all  primary  schools  the  world  over.  After  com- 
pleting this  course  the  scholar  who  wishes  to  con- 
tinue his  studies  may  enter  one  of  the  secondary 
schools.  Here,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  subjects, 
instruction  is  given  in  English,  higher  mathematics, 
practical  geometry,  and  the  knowledge  of  Pali  terms 
and  words  necessary  to  the  correct  writing  and 
understanding  of  official  letters,  documents,  and 
Siamese  literature.  A  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
Siamese  language  is  in  itself  an  achievement  of  no 
mean  order,  and  the  various  additional  subjects  in- 
cluded in  the  code  justify  the  description  of  second- 
ary schools. 


206  Kingdom  of  Siam 

Three  years  spent  in  one  of  these  schools  give  a 
boy  the  necessary  mental  equipment  for  ordinary 
departmental  work.  And  here  it  may  be  pointed 
out  that  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  scholars  are 
destined  to  enter  the  Government  service.  The 
educational  system  of  a  country  must  always  be 
framed  in  accordance  with  the  country's  require- 
ments. The  Siamese  are  distinctly  a  governing  race. 
Thus  for  the  nation's  needs  a  civil-service  college  is 
a  more  practical  institution  than  a  technical  school. 
This  college  is  one  of  the  special  schools  which  a 
scholar  may  enter  after  completing  his  course  in  the 
secondary  schools ;  here  future  administrators  are 
given  some  idea  of  the  duties  and  responsibilities 
that  will  in  time  devolve  upon  them.  The  pupils 
mostly  enter  the  service  of  the  Department  of  the 
Interior  and  will  carry  new  methods  of  organization 
into  the  provinces. 

There  are  various  other  special  schools  into  which 
the  scholar  may  pass  on  the  termination  of  his 
secondary  course.  The  English  schools,  of  which 
there  are  at  present  three  under  the  department, 
one  residential  and  two  day-schools,  give  thorough 
instruction  in  English.  Here  the  students  are 
further  incited  to  work  by  the  prospect  of  being 
sent  abroad  to  continue  their  studies,  His  Majesty 


Education  207 

the  King  has  donated  two  scholarships  to  be  com- 
peted for  annually  by  any  bona-fide  Siamese  subject 
under  the  age  of  nineteen.  The  fortunate  winners 
of  these  scholarships,  worth  three  hundred  pounds 
a  year  for  four  years,  are  sent  to  Europe  and  per- 
mitted to  take  up  any  line  of  study  which  they 
choose,  the  sole  condition  being  that  at  the  end  of 
their  course  they  place  their  services  at  the  disposal 
of  the  Government.  Others  chosen  from  the  list 
may  also  be  sent  to  be  trained  as  teachers,  on  their 
return  to  spread  the  knowledge  they  have  acquired, 
as  teachers,  or  compilers  of  much-needed  text- 
books in  the  vernacular.  The  number  so  sent 
might  well  and  probably  will  be  increased  in  future. 
In  addition  to  the  Government  schools  there  are  also 
several  private  institutions,  of  which  special  mention 
may  be  made:  of  the  Assumption  College  (staffed 
by  the  Reverend  Brothers  of  St.  Gabriel)  and  the 
High  School  of  the  American  Presbyterian  Mission. 
They  are  both  residential  and  day-schools  combined 
and  do  much  good  work.  "Wang  Lang,"  also 
under  mission  control,  performs  a  similar  service  for 
girls  and  has  an  excellent  record  of  work  and  service. 
Of  special  schools  attached  to  the  different  depart- 
ments there  are  many.  These  take  scholars  from 
both  primary  and  secondary  schools,  but  in  the 


2o8  Kingdom  of  Siam 

latter  case  the  special  course  is  shortened.  Mention 
may  be  made  of  the  Law  School,  the  Military  and 
Naval  Colleges  (especially  popular  with  the  sons  of 
nobles),  and  the  Medical  School  and  College,  which 
is  doing  much  real  if  quiet  work,  sending  out  quali- 
fied men  into  the  provinces  to  fight  against  the  epi- 
demics that  have  in  the  past  sometimes  decimated 
the  population. 

From  these  schools  promising  students  are  se- 
lected from  time  to  time  to  be  sent  abroad,  there  to 
continue  and  to  perfect  their  studies. 

The  Survey  School  (residential)  trains  men  for  use 
in  its  own  department,  giving  a  thorough  practical 
training  both  in  the  schoolroom  and  in  the  field. 

There  are  in  addition  schools  for  training  men  for 
work  in  the  railway  department,  the  police,  the 
provincial  gendarmerie,  and  in  sericulture,  this  last 
being  under  Japanese  instruction  and  supervision. 

Lastly  and  most  important  of  all,  as  being  those 
on  which  the  success  of  the  others  depends,  come 
the  two  normal  colleges.  One  trains  teachers  for 
both  the  primary  and  secondary  schools  of  the  capi- 
tal ;  the  other,  recently  established  but  already  very 
full,  is  intended  primarily  to  supply  the  needs  of  the 
provinces.  Upon  this  school  the  future  of  educa- 
tion in  the  provinces  will  largely  depend.  In  edu- 


o 


Education  209 

cation,  as  in  most  other  things,  the  capital  is  far  in 
advance  of  the  rest  of  the  country.  True,  there  are 
schools  in  every  province  and  in  communication 
with  the  department,  but  the  control  over  them  is 
more  nominal  than  real.  This  year  two  organizing 
inspectors  have  been  sent  out  to  near  provinces, 
whose  work  it  will  be  to  raise  the  provincial  schools 
to  the  same  standard  as  those  of  the  capital.  This 
will  be  the  work  of  the  future:  to  establish  a  uni- 
form national  graded  system  of  education,  and  while 
perfecting  the  system  in  the  capital  to  extend  its 
workings  to  every  town  and  village  in  the  country. 

It  is  a  work  of  great  magnitude,  but  its  accom- 
plishment is  only  a  question  of  time.  The  desire 
for  education  is  rapidly  spreading,  and  the  provin- 
cial authorities  are  as  eager  as  the  central  department 
for  the  work  to  be  started. 

There  are  many  difficulties  in  the  way,  the  chief 
being  the  want  of  money  and  the  scarcity  of  suitable 
teachers.  But  these  will  be  lessened  in  time,  and 
there  are  many  cheering  features,  not  the  least  of 
which  is  the  manifest  enthusiasm  and  self-sacrificing 
work  of  the  Buddhist  priests.  These  form  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  teaching  staff  of  the  primary 
schools. 

They  are  for  the  most  part  keen  teachers,  full  of 

14 


2  IO 


Kingdom  of  Siam 


their  work  and  excellent  managers.  Temples  and 
priests  figure  very  largely  in  the  work  of  education, 
and  it  is  well  that  this  is  so. 

Little  progress  has  as  yet  been  made  in  the  work 
of  educating  girls,  and  in  the  higher  branches  of 
education  much  still  remains  to  be  done.  At  pres- 
ent the  foundations  are  being  laid,  and  if  the  more 
ornamental  part  has  not  yet  appeared  it  is  not  alto- 
gether a  bad  sign  for  the  future. 


CHAPTER  XV 
ARCHAEOLOGY 


211 


CHAPTER   XV 

SIAMESE  ARCHAEOLOGY — A  SYNOPTICAL  SKETCH  BY 
COLONEL   GERINI 

OCARCELY  any  of  those  neolithic  implements 
^  typified  in  the  shouldered  Celt,  which  have  been 
traced  in  a  continuous  and  homogeneous  series  all 
from  Chutya-Nagpur  in  India  through  Quasi-total 
Assam,  Burmah,  the  Yun-nan  borders,  £*£**£ 
Laos,  Kamboja,  and  the  Malay  Penin-  Remains, 
sula,  to  the  Archipelago,  have  so  far  been  discovered 
in  Siam  proper.  The  last  find  recorded  is  the  head 
of  a  stone  hatchet  dug  out  a  few  years  ago  at  some 
thirty  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  on  the 
railway  works,  at  a  point  about  six  miles  to  the  west 
of  Korat.  It  is  now  in  the  Royal  Museum  at  Bang- 
kok. Although  there  is  ample  evidence  to  show 
that  the  ethnic  element  characterized  by  such  imple- 
ments must  have  been  in  the  early  days  also  in 
occupation  of  the  Menam  valley,  for  some  reason 
or  other,  chiefly,  perhaps,  on  account  of  as  yet 

213 


214  Kingdom  of  Siam 

insufficient  and  systematic  exploration  of  the  coun- 
try, such  prehistoric  and  presumably  aboriginal  relics 
have  hitherto  failed  to  come  to  light  in  this  region, 
except  in  exceedingly  rare  dribblets.  Accordingly, 
the  archaeology  of  Siam  must  needs  start,  for  the 
present,  with  the  Brahmano-Buddhist  period. 

From  several  centuries  before  the  Christian  era  a 
double  system  of  traders  and  adventurers  began  to 
The  indu  flow  into  Indo-China  from,  respectively, 
'"'  northern  and  southern  India,  reaching  the 
upper  parts  of  the  peninsula  by  land  through  Burmah 
and  its  southern  coast  by  sea,  and  founding  there 
settlements  and  commercial  stations.  Brahminism 
and  later  on  Buddhism  (third  century  B.C.),  with 
most  other  achievements  of  Indian  culture,  followed 
in  the  wake  of  these  pioneers;  and  thus  it  is  to 
ancient  India  that  Indo-China  owes  her  early  civili- 
zation. At  the  dawn  of  the  Christian  era,  as  I  have 
elsewhere  demonstrated,  Buddhism  had  already 
gained  a  firm  foothold  on  the  east  coast  of  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  near  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Siam, 
whence  it  advanced  and  soon  spread  all  over  the 
country  of  the  Menam  delta.  On  the  other  hand, 
Brahminism  had  established  itself  in  central  and 
northern  Siam,  where  Swankhalok  and  Sukhothai 
formed  its  principal  foci.  Not  more  than  about 


RUINS  AT  AYUTHIA 


Archaeology  2 1 5 

four  centuries  later  we  begin  to  hear  of  Nagara  Sri 
Dharmaraja,  or  Ligor,  as  the  chief  centre  of  both 
Buddhism  and  Brahminism  on  the  east  coast  of  the 
Malay  Peninsula;  while  on  the  Menam  delta  we 
find  both  faiths  prevalent,  but  more  especially  Bud- 
dhism, in  the  territory  of  Phrah-Prathom  in  the 
present  Nakhon-Chai-Sri  province. 

In  the  sixth  century  A.D.  no  less  than  three  cities 
already  existed  in  central  Siam,  to  wit :  Swankhalok 
(Q$  B.C.),  Sukhothai  (circa  70  B.C.),  and 

Siam's  Most 

Kampheng-phet  (A.D.  457);  and  in  the  Ancient 
north,  not  far  from  the  headwaters  of  the 
Menam,  another  one,  Lamphun,  had  just  been 
founded  (A.D.  527).  The  two  first-named  were 
alternately,  for  the  next  eight  centuries,  the  capitals 
of  the  famous  Swankhalok-Sukhothai  State,  which 
so  long  held  hegemony  over  central  Siam.  The 
last  one  became  the  capital  of  the  first  Thai  king- 
dom in  the  Menam  valley,  holding  its  own  until 
A.D.  1281,  when  it  was  supplanted  by  the  newly 
rising  Lao  power  that  established  soon  afterwards 
its  seat  at  Chieng-Mai  (A.D.  1296).  In  southern 
Siam  we  find  at  the  same  remote  period  the  cities 
of  Sri  Vijaya,  on  and  about  the  site  of  the  present 
Phrah-Prathom  village;  and  the  then  but  recently 
founded  Lopburi  (A.D.  493),  which  was  soon  to 


216  Kingdom  of  Siam 

become  the  chief  centre  of  power  for  southern  Siam. 
All  these,  conjointly  with  Ligor,  already  referred 
to,  are  Siam's  most  ancient  cities.  Accordingly,  it 
is  on  their  sites  and  in  the  adjoining  territory  that  the 
oldest  monuments  and  about  all  that  remains  of 
Siamese  antiquities  of  that  early  period  are  to  be 
found. 

The  influence  of  Indu  civilization  was  not  slow  in 
making  itself  felt  in  the  centres  above  described  and 
The  Monu-  to  perpetuate  its  own  memory  in  monu- 
ments whether  epigraphic  or  otherwise. 
It  is,  however,  as  naturally  follows,  in  edifices  de- 
voted to  worship  that  it  began  to  make  itself  mani- 
fest. 

The  oldest  of  these  structures  are  to  be  found  at 

Swankhalok   in   the  shape  of  gloomy  shrines  and 

hermit  cells,  erected  mostly  on  the  tops 

In  Central 

and  Northern  and  flanks  of  the  hills,  and  carefully 
oriented  according  to  the  cardinal  points. 
They  are  characterized  by  massive  cyclopean  walls 
surmounted  by  gable  roofs,  all  built  of  laterite 
blocks  excavated  near  by,  and  laid  throughout  in 
horizontal  courses  without  any  cement ;  their  unique 
entrance,  which  faces  the  east,  curving  towards  the 
top  into  a  pointed,  often  lancet-shaped  arch.  The 
style  quite  resembles  that  of  the  ancient  central  and 


Archaeology  2 1 7 

northern  India  temples,  thus  evidencing  that  their 
planning,  and  perhaps  construction,  was  due  at  least 
in  part  to  immigrants  and  settlers  from  those  quar- 
ters. The  shrine,  apparently  Sivaite,  erected  on 
the  summit  of  the  Laong  Samli  Hill,  near  the  centre 
of  old  Swankhalok  city,  is  no  doubt  one  of  the  most 
ancient  of  these  structures,  for  by  tradition  it  is 
almost  coeval  with  the  foundation  of  the  city  itself 
(circa  95  B.C.). 

Later  on  follow  more  elaborate  creations,  charac- 
terized by  the  same  massive  style  of  building,  but 
embellished    with    portals,    railings,    and        Deveio 
symbolical  decorations,  devoted  to  Brah-  ments. 

minic  worship ;  and  further  Buddhist  spires  and 
pagoda-shaped  reliquaries;  royal  palaces  and  city 
walls,  and  smaller  monuments,  some  of  which  are  of 
an  exceedingly  graceful  architecture,  which  may  be 
seen  in  considerable  numbers  all  over  the  sites  of 
old  Swankhalok,  Sukhothai,  Kampheng-phet,  and 
other  ancient  cities  of  central  and  northern  Siam, 
The  masterpiece  of  all,  and  the  best-preserved  speci- 
men, is  undoubtedly  the  spire  of  Wat  Phrah  Prang, 
at  the  southeastern  corner  of  old  Swankhalok  city, 
dating  from  the  latter  part  of  the  eleventh  century. 
Notable  also  is  the  Brahminic  temple  of  Sri  Swai 
in  old  Sukhothai,  with  its  three  finely  ornamented, 


218  Kingdom  of  Siam 

tapering  domes,  built  somewhat  after  the  style  of 
the  Angkor  Wat  and  the  Mi-bun  shrine  in  Cambodia. 

The  material  exclusively  employed  in  the  oldest 
monuments  of  central  and  northern  Siam  is  laterite 
Building  hewn  into  fair-sized  blocks.  Later  on, 
Materials.  but  no(-  before  the  eleventh  century,  this 
becomes  associated  with  gray  or  greenish-gray  sand- 
stone, used  for  statues,  doorways,  railings,  and 
decorative  sculptures.  A  striking  example  of  its 
employment  in  huge  monoliths  occurs  in  the  gate- 
ways of  the  walled  enclosure  surrounding  Wat  Phrah 
Prang  at  old  Swankhalok.  From  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury A.D.  brickwork  comes  into  evidence  and  soon 
prevails,  forming  in  after  ages  the  characteristic  of 
Thai  architecture,  which  elaborated  and  developed 
in  brick,  plaster,  and  mortar  the  old  architectural 
motives  just  described. 

This  being  a  deltaic  country  where  neither  laterite 
nor  other  natural  building  materials  are  to  be  found 
in  southern  except  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  flanking 
siam.  both  sides  of  the  Menam  valley,  stone 

structures  do  not  occur  except  on  the  eastern  bor- 
ders on  the  one  side,  and  in  the  province  of  Rajburi 
on  the  west,  arid  then  but  very  sparsely  and  of  very 
diminutive  sizes.  The  prevailing  material  is  brick, 
and  it  is  accordingly  of  this  that  we  find  the  oldest 


Archaeology  219 

monuments  built,  though  not  unfrequently  coarse- 
textured  sandstone,  either  yellowish  or  reddish, 
more  rarely  gray,  in  color,  occurs  associated  with  it 
in  terminals,  wall  crests,  stelae  (Wat  Maha  That  at 
Rajburi),  in  statues  (gray,  Phrah  Prathom),  and  even 
in  square  blocks  (Wat  Na  Phrah  That  at  Lopburi). 
The  oldest  monument  of  southern  Siam  appears 
to  be  the  original  Phrah  Prathom  spire,  now  encased 
in  a  recently  erected  and  far  more  imposing  one  of 
over  three  hundred  feet  in  height.  Nearly  co-eval 
with  it  is  the  neighboring  Phrah  Thon  pagoda,  also 
in  brickwork  (A.D.  656).  Then  follow  the  remains  of 
ancient  temples  at  Lopburi,  on  the  sites  of  which 
Buddhist  Wats  now  rise;  and  the  ruins  of  primitive 
hermitages  with  debris  of  statues  and  stelae  on  the 
flanks  of  the  Sabab  Hill  near  Chanthabun,  a  city 
dating  from  the  eighth  or  ninth  century  A.D.,  if  not 
earlier.  At  Ligor,  Wat  Na  Phrah  That,  in  the 
centre  of  the  city,  and  Wat  Maheyong  (Mahiyan- 
gana),  on  its  outskirts,  are  undoubtedly  very  ancient 
foundations;  and  ruins  of  considerable  antiquity, 
never  yet  brought  before  this  to  the  notice  of  the 
public,  with  statues  of  deities,  etc.,  occur  on  the 
western  side  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  at  the  Phrah 
Maria  (i.  e.,  Visnu)  Hill,  on  the  upper  course  of  the 
Takua-pa  (Takopa)  River.  A  thorough  examination 


220  Kingdom  of  Siam 

of  the  as  yet  archaeologically  unexplored  adjoining 
districts  is  sure  to  reveal  the  existence  of  many 
more  ancient  remains.  All  early  structures  on  this 
region  are  in  brick,  the  material  generally  employed 
all  over  the  east  coast  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal  as  far 
north  as  Pegu,  Arakan,  and  the  delta  of  the  Ganges. 

The  chief  characteristics  of  the  old  monuments  of 
southern  Siam  are,  besides  the  almost  exclusive 
employment  in  them  of  brickwork,  their  more  gen- 
eral Buddhist  destination  than  in  the  north,  where 
Brahminism  was  the  prevailing  form  of  worship  in 
the  early  days.  Moreover,  their  style  of  architec- 
ture is,  as  may  easily  be  inferred,  more  southern 
India,  i.  e.,  Dravidian,  in  type,  thus  most  closely 
approaching  that  of  the  latter  Cambodian  monu- 
ments. Nowhere  do  we  find,  however,  in  Siam, 
whether  north  or  south,  any  sublime  creations 
equalling  in  grandeur  and  artistic  perfection  those 
of  Angkor  Wat  and  Angkor  Thom,  which  are,  in- 
deed, unique  in  that  respect  not  only  in  Indo-China 
or  even  Asia,  but  perhaps  in  the  whole  world. 

Limestone  caves,  many  of  which  are  stalactitic, 

abound  in   southern  Siam,  especially  in  the  Rajburi 

and    Phejburi    provinces,     but    nowhere 

more    than    on    the     Malay     Peninsula. 

These,  as  in  Cambodia  and  Pegu,  have  been  mostly 


Archaeology  221 

utilized  as  Buddhist  sanctuaries  and  places  of  pil- 
grimage ;  but  beyond  some  decorations  and  statues, 
generally  in  brick  or  plaster,  they  offer  nothing  re- 
markable in  the  way  of  architectural  achievement, 
compared  with,  for  instance,  the  rock-cut  temples 
of  western  India  or  even  Ceylon.  Buddhist  clay 
tablets,  bearing  Sanskrit  legends  of  the  tenth  and 
eleventh  centuries,  have,  however,  been  dug  out  of 
the  caves  to  the  northeast  of  Trang,  on  the  west 
coast  of  the  Malay  Peninsula.  They  greatly  re- 
semble those  from  Pagan  and  Tagoung  in  Burmah. 
Although  no  such  fruitful  harvest  of  ancient  in- 
scriptions has  been  gathered  in  Siam  as  in  Cambodia 
and  Champa,  owing,  no  doubt,  to  the  lack 
of  thorough  and  systematic  archaeological 
exploration,  the  petroglyphic  monuments  thus  far 
brought  to  light  are  of  sufficient  historical  and  palaeo- 
graphic  importance  to  deserve  more  than  a  passing 
mention.  Their  chronological  range  extends  for 
the  districts  on  the  Malay  Peninsula  as  far  back  as 
the  fifth  century  of  the  Christian  era,  while  in 
southern  Siam  it  borders  upon  the  sixth  or  seventh. 
No  inscription  has,  strange  to  say,  so  far  been  dis- 
covered in  either  central  or  northern  Siam  earlier 
than  the  fourteenth  century,  i.  e.,  than  the  period 
when  Thai  supremacy  had  already  firmly  established 


222  Kingdom  of  Siam 

itself  over  the  whole  of  the  Menam  valley.  Ancient 
manuscripts  are  extremely  scarce,  and  the  oldest 
ones  so  far  known  are  on  palm  leaves,  and  do  not,  as 
a  rule,  go  back  more  than  three  centuries.  No  coins 
with  inscriptions  or  monograms  dating  earlier  than 
the  fourteenth  century  have  as  yet  come  to  light. 

Leaving  aside  the  already  well-known  inscriptions 
of  Kedah  and  province  Wellesley  (circa  A.D.  400), 
ontheMaiay  and  proceeding  up  the  peninsula,  we  feel 
Peninsula.  bound  to  notice  the  Pali  and  Sanskrit  in- 
scribed stelae  of  the  eighth  century  A.D.  from  Wat 
Maheyong  in  the  province  of  Ligor,  a  Pali  inscrip- 
tion on  a  brass  plate  from  the  Takua-thung  district 
(circa  ninth  century  A.D.),  and,  what  will  be  welcome 
news  to  scholars,  a  petroglyphic  monument  of  about 
the  same  age  as  those  of  Kedah  and  province  Wel- 
lesley just  discovered  at  old  Takua-pa  (Takopa), 
within  the  precincts  of  Wat  Na-Muang,  in  the  middle 
of  a  former  bed  of  the  river.  This  last  find  is  of  the 
highest  importance,  as  evidencing  that  Indu  influ- 
ence had  established  itself,  not  merely  at  one  or  two 
isolated  points  on  the  west  coast  of  the  Malay  Pen- 
insula, but  practically  over  the  whole  length  of  that 
littoral,  whence  it  crossed  overland  to  the  Gulf  of 
Siam. 

In  the  country  of  the   Menam  delta  the  oldest 


Archaeology  223 

epigraphic  records  hitherto  discovered  are  those  in 
Pali  on  terra-cotta  tablets,  dug  at  Phrah  In  southern 
Prathom  some  fifty  years  ago  (A.D.  1857).  siam' 

They  contain  the  Buddhist  profession  of  faith,  and 
the  shape  of  their  characters  (of  a  southern  Indian 
type  closely  identical  to  the  Vengi  and  western 
Chalukya)  argues  their  age  to  be  the  sixth  or  seventh 
century  A.D.  Then  follows  a  gap  stretching  down 
until  the  Khmer  inscription  from  Lopburi,  which 
bears  two  dates  corresponding  to  A.D.  1022  and 
1025.  At  Chanthabun,  however,  both  Sanskrit  and 
Khmer  inscriptions  dating  from  the  ninth  and  tenth 
centuries  occur,  as  well  as  at  Battambong  and  in  the 
province  of  Korat,  on  the  outskirts  of  the  Cambodian 
epigraphical  zone.  These  are  all  the  records  so  far 
discovered  of  the  age  of  Cambodian  domination  over 
southern  and  central  Siam,  which  extended,  with 
but  few  interruptions,  from  the  middle  of  the 
seventh  to  that  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

The  following  period,  that  of  independent  Thai 
rule,  is  first  marked  by  the  Sukhothai  inscription  of 
about  A.D.  1300,  this  being  the  earliest 

The  Dawn 

epigraphic  monument   extant  worded  in          ofThai 
the  Thai  language,  and  engraved  in  the 
Thai  characters  that  had  then  just  been  invented. 
After  this,   Thai  inscriptions  become  numerous  in 


224  Kingdom  of  Siam 

both  central  and  northern  Siam,  as  well  as  in  west- 
ern Laos  (Chieng-Mai),  and  we  enter  upon  the 
phase  of  national  Thai  history,  centring  at  first  in 
Sukhothai  (A.D.  1257-1350)  and  then  in  Ayuthia 
(A.D.  1350-1767)  as  successive  capitals. 

Most  of  the  inscriptions  alluded  to  above  are 
carved  on  finely  grained  sandstone  slabs  of  either 
paiseographic  a  gray  or  greenish-gray  color.  At  old 
peculiarities.  Swankhalok  and  Sukhothai,  dark  -  blue 

slate  and  phyllades  have  also  been  at  times  em- 
ployed. Inscribed  bricks  and  tiles  are  common  on 
the  delta,  as  well  as  all  over  the  Malay  Peninsula, 
where  also  occur  the  stamped  clay-tablets  bearing 
Buddhist  images  and  inscriptions  already  referred  to. 
Until  A.D.  1500,  such  epigraphic  records  as  bear 
dates  are  invariably  dated  in  the  Saka  era,  begin- 
ning A.D.  78,  which  has  been  the  one  in  general  use, 
until  comparatively  modern  times,  and,  with  but  rare 
and  sporadic  exceptions,  all  over  Indo-China  and  the 
Archipelago.  This  fact,  as  I  have  elsewhere  more 
fully  pointed  out,  proves  the  pretended  foundation 
of  the  Chula  era  in  A.D.  638  at  Swankhalok  to  be 
a  pure  myth  absolutely  unworthy  of  credence.1 

1  Gupta  era  in  Burmah  (fifth  century  A.D.),  also  Buddhist  era 
(from  A.D.  1084  downwards),  and  Sakaraj  (Culla  Saka)  era  at  about 
the  same  period  (from  A.D.  1017  downwards).  In  Siam  the  Bud- 


Archaeology  225 

In  the  Swankhalok  and  Sukhothai  monuments 
from  the  eleventh  century  downwards,  glazed  tiles, 
statuettes,  friezes,  terminals,  and  other 

.  Other 

decorations  in  glazed  pottery  occur.     A      Noticeable 
ceramic  industry  turning  out  products  in     conation 

imitation    of   the    crackled    ware    of   the  with  Ancient 

Monument*. 

Chinese  Sung  dynasty  was  started  at 
Swankhalok  towards  the  close  of  the  eleventh 
century.  Iron  I  found  employed  in  the  walls  of 
Wat  Sri-chum  (old  Sukhothai),  a  temple  dating  from 
the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  and  built  of  square 
blocks  of  gray  sandstone  carefully  fitted  and  clamped 
inside.  Bronze  castings  of  considerable  dimensions 
also  begin  to  appear  at  about  the  same  period,  as 
well  as  Buddhist  statuettes  carved  out  of  jade, 
quartz,  alabaster,  ivory,  and  other  prized  materials. 
More  ancient,  however,  appears  to  be  the  establish- 
ment of  the  art  of  niello-ware-making  at  Ligor, 
where  it  soon  attained  a  high  degree  of  perfection. 
With  the  advent  of  brickwork  structures,  wood  finds 


dhist  era  occurs  at  times  on  purely  religious  inscriptions,  but  not 
before  A.D.  1357,  when  it  is  but  cursorily  mentioned  in  the  Thai  in- 
scription from  Wat  Sri-chum  at  old  Sukhothai.  Its  first  direct  em- 
ployment is  in  the  Pali  inscription  on  the  model  of  Buddha's 
footprint  from  Sukhothai  (now  in  the  former  second  king's  tem- 
ple, Bangkok,  dated  in  the  year  1970  from  Buddha's  Nirvana,  or 
A.D.  1426). 
15 


226  Kingdom  of  Siam 

wide  employment  in  buildings,  where  it  is  inserted 
into  the  masonry  and  utilized  separately  in  the 
shape  of  pillars  and  supports  for  the  roof,  with 
great  detriment  to  the  solidity  and  durability  of  the 
constructions.  On  the  other  hand,  however,  its 
extended  use  gives  an  impetus  to  the  art  of  wood- 
carving,  which  soon  attains  marked  excellence  in 
ornamental  pieces,  but  above  all  in  door  frames  and 
panels,  of  which  several  highly  finished  specimens 
are  still  extant  (doors  of  the  Phrah  Then  sanctuary 
at  Thung-yang,  and  of  Wat  Suthat  at  Bangkok, 
brought  thither  from  Sukhothai,  both  dating  from 
the  fourteenth  or  fifteenth  century).  Later  on  this 
industry  is  superseded,  especially  in  door  and  win- 
dow panels,  by  the  more  modern  one  of  lacquered, 
gilt,  and  mother-of-pearl  inlaid  work,  of  which  per- 
haps the  most  perfect  early  specimen  extant  may  be 
witnessed  in  the  massive  door  panels  of  the  Phrah 
Chinaraj  sanctuary  at  Phisnulok  (made  to  the  king's 
order  in  A.D.  1755). 

With  these  developments  we  enter  upon  the  phase 
of  modern  Siamese  art,  at  the  threshold  of  which 
the  province  of  archaeology — forming  the  object  of 
the  present  cursory  sketch — must,  as  a  matter  of 
course,  end. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

TRANSPORTATION  AND  MEANS  OF 
COMMUNICATION 


227 


CHAPTER   XVI 

RIVER  AND  LAND  TRANSPORT,  BY  THE  SECRETARY- 
GENERAL 

THE  chief  means  of  communication  and  trans- 
port in  Siam  is  by  water.  This  is  due  to 
the  configuration  of  the  country  and  to  the  bulky 
nature  of  its  staple  exports,  rice  and  teak. 

A  glance  at  the  map  of  Siam  shows  that  the 
river  Menam  Chow  Phraya  forms  the  main  artery 
by  which  nearly  all  the  produce  for  export  reaches 
Bangkok  and  by  which  naturally  the  imported  goods 
are  distributed  over  the  country. 

In  addition  to  the  Menam  there  are  the  Pachim, 
Tachin,  and  Mekong  rivers,  which  are  connected  by 
canals  with  the  Menam,  and  also  the  whole  of  Lower 
Siam  is  intersected  by  canals  opening  into  the  main 
river. 

Though  roads  exist  in  the  towns  and  in  Upper 
Siam,  where  the  country  is  hilly,  they  would  be 
practically  useless  in  Lower  Siam,  where  the  greater 

229 


230  Kingdom  of  Siam 

part  of  the  country  is  under  water  during  the  wet 
season. 

Very  few  data  can  be  given  respecting  the  number 
of  boats  in  Siam,  but  the  following  figures  show  the 
great  extent  of  this  means  of  communication.  Dur- 
ing the  past  year,  a  five  days'  reckoning  of  the  num- 
ber of  boats  passing  certain  given  points  was  made 
with  this  result : 

Tamnearn  Saduak  Canal 3163  boats 

Prawete  Canal 2291     " 

San  Sep  Canal 5302     " 

Rangsit  (lock  gate) 2978     " 

An  average  of  about  683  per  day  at  a  given  spot. 
A  point  taken  on  a  canal  joining  two  rivers,  the  Pase 
Charoen  Canal,  gave  the  number  of  9851  boats  in 
seven  days,  of  which  7830  were  small.  The  highest 
average  number  of  boats  passing  a  given  spot  in 
Europe  is  said  to  be  200  per  day,  and  the  figures 
for  the  Rhine  where  it  enters  Holland  are  160  aver- 
age per  day  for  1898. 

Another  proof  of  the  great  extent  of  transport  by 
boat  is  shown  by  comparing  the  returns  of  the  rail- 
ways to  Bangkok  with  the  export  returns;  these 
show  that  ninety-seven  per  cent,  of  the  total  rice 
exported  reached  Bangkok  by  boat  and  ninety-three 
and  a  half  per  cent,  of  the  other  exports. 


Transportation  and  Communication  231 

This  enormous  boat  traffic  has  resulted  in  the 
evolution  of  many  interesting  forms  of  boats  suit- 
able for  special  requirements,  varying  from  the 
miniature  canoe,  just  sufficient  for  one  person,  up 
to  the  heavy  rice-boat  which  brings  the  harvest  to 
the  capital. 

Boats  are  propelled  in  Lower  Siam  by  three  ways 
— chowing,  poling,  and  paddling.  To  "chow"  is 
the  Siamese  name  for  propelling  a  boat  much  like 
the  way  a  gondola  is  propelled — that  is,  the  rower 
stands  facing  the  bow,  and  the  oar  swivels  on  a  small 
upright  fixed  on  the  edge  of  the  boat.  The  great 
advantage  of  this  method  is  that,  with  a  single  oar, 
the  rower  always  sees  ahead  and  steers  the  boat  by 
the  manipulation  of  the  oar. 

The  long  boats  which  make  the  journey  to  the 
north,  a  journey  varying  from  three  weeks  to  three 
months,  according  to  the  state  of  the  water,  are 
generally  towed  by  launches  where  there  is  sufficient 
water,  then  rowed  in  European  fashion  till  the  shal- 
lows are  reached,  where  they  are  poled  or  punted. 
In  the  dry  season  it  is  frequently  necessary  to  dig 
channels  and  drag  them  through  the  sand-banks 
stretching  across  the  river,  hence  these  boats  have 
to  be  built  with  a  massive  keel  to  stand  the  strain ; 
similarly  when  descending  the  river  there  are  rapids 


232  Kingdom  of  Siam 

to  be  shot  and  rocks  to  be  avoided.  Persons 
travelling  under  the  most  favorable  conditions  in 
the  best  season  can  do  the  journey  from  Bangkok 
to  Chieng  Mai  in  three  weeks,  goods  in  six.  The 
wages  of  a  boatman  are  from  £i  to  ;£i,io  a 
month.  The  overland  trade  is  carried  on  chiefly 
by  means  of  caravans  of  carriers,  mules,  and  bul- 
locks. Elephants  are  not  much  used  in  trading, 
being  generally  employed  in  working  teak  and  oc- 
casionally in  carrying  baggage  and  rice.  Large 
numbers  of  elephants  are  bred  in  captivity  and 
wild  ones  are  captured. 

The  carriers  are  mostly  Shans.  Mules  are  not 
bred  in  Siam,  but  come  over  from  Yunnan  carrying 
goods.  The  cost  of  mule  transport  is  is.  to  2s.  per 
load  (150  Ibs.)  for  ten  miles. 

Bullock  transport  is  much  slower  than  mule  trans- 
port, but  about  half  the  cost  per  load  of  ninety 
pounds.  A  bullock  caravan  has  about  one  hundred 
animals. 

Siam  entered  on  her  career  of  railway  construction 
in  1891. 

The  policy  then  adopted  has  been  adhered  to 
since  and  still  controls  the  spirit  in  which 

Railways.  .     . 

railways  were  originally  decided  on. 
The   three    chief  points   of  this    policy   are:    (i) 


Transportation  and  Communication  233 

Construction  by  the  state  of  all  main  lines.  (2) 
Construction  out  of  revenue.  (3)  Concessions  given 
for  smaller  lines. 

The  state  has  now  built  and  works  456  kilometres 
of  main  line,  and  is  steadily  pushing  the  line  through 
to  the  north.  This  main  line  leaves  Bangkok  and 
proceeds  almost  due  north  until  it  has  passed  the 
old  capital;  it  then  bears  to  the  northeast,  but 
divides  into  two  branches,  the  one  terminating  at 
Korat,  the  other,  the  main  line  to  the  north,  is 
open  for  42  kilometres  beyond  the  junction,  while 
160  kilometres  are  under  construction,  and  work  is 
being  pushed  forward  as  rapidly  as  possible. 

The  second  main  line  connects  the  west  of  Siam 
to  the  capital  and  reaches  the  head  of  the  Malay 
Peninsula.  Some  day  it  will  probably  be  extended 
to  meet  the  line  which  runs  up  the  Malay  Peninsula 
from  Singapore. 

Lines  built  by  concessionaires.  There  are  two 
short  lines  terminating  in  Bangkok,  one  of  which 
has  been  working  since  1893,  the  other  is  still  under 
construction.  Another  line  connecting  with  the 
main  northern  line  has  been  recently  opened. 
Owing  to  most  of  the  lines  being  recently  opened 
it  is  impossible  to  give  statistics. 

The  Government  lines,  306  kilometres  of  which 


234  Kingdom  of  Siam 

were  open  from  April,  1901,  to  March,  1902,  carried 
850,525  passengers,  and  the  profit  earned,  after 
placing  eight  per  cent,  of  the  net  profit  to  a  special 
improvement  fund,  amounted  to  two  and  a  third 
per  cent,  on  the  total  capital  expenditure. 

The  Paknam  (concession  railway),  which  was 
opened  in  1893,  has  paid  a  steady  and  increasing 
dividend  since  its  opening.  It  now  pays  over  ten 
per  cent,  interest  on  its  capital. 

Except  in  the  capital  there  are  no  tramways  in 
the  country.  The  tramway  in  Bangkok 

Tramways. 

is  owned  and  managed  by  a  Danish  com- 
pany under  a  concession  from  the  Government. 

The  line  started  as  a  horse  tramway,  but  was 
afterwards  electrified  and  was  then  amalgamated 
with  the  electric  light  company,  and  power  is  now 
supplied  both  for  the  tramway  and  lighting  from 
the  one  generating  station. 

The  length  of  line  at  present  open  is  17.3  kilo- 
metres, and  in  contemplation  16  kilometres.  The 
fare  per  kilometre  is  i.i  atts  (0.5  cent  gold)  second 
class  and  2.2  atts  (i.  cent  gold)  first  class. 

The  number  of  passengers  carried  per  annum  is 
over  10,000,000.  The  capital  of  the  combined  com- 
panies is  about  3,000,000  ticals,  including  debentures 
say  about  .£160,000  sterling,  and  the  profit  earned 


Transportation  and  Communication  235 

by  the  tramway  for  the  past  six  months  was  about 
^"9000  sterling. 

POST  AND   TELEGRAPHS 

Siam  entered  the  Postal  Union  in  1885.  The 
collection,  transport,  and  distribution  of  letters  is  a 
state  monopoly. 

The  post  and  telegraph  department,  which  in- 
cludes the  Government  telephone  department,  is 
organized  under  a  director-general  and  forms  part 
of  the  Ministry  of  Public  Works. 

The  receipts  for  the  year  1901  amounted  to  fr. 
177,315  and  the  expenditure  to  fr.  489,227,  the  ex- 
cess of  expenditure  over  revenue  being  fr.  311,912. 

This  heavy  excess  is  due  to  several  causes.  In 
1901  Siam  was  still  working  under  a  silver  standard, 
and  the  postal  and  telegraph  department  was  com- 
pelled to  make  remitments  in  gold  to  pay  its 
share  of  the  international  charges.  The  population 
is  small  compared  with  the  size  of  the  country,  but 
widely  spread ;  the  cost  of  transport  is  therefore 
extremely  heavy,  whilst  the  charges  are  light. 

Inland  letters  pay  a  minimum  of  4  atts  (8  cen- 
times), and  foreign  letters  14  atts  (28  centimes). 

STATISTICS,    IQOI 

Letters 777, 380 

Post  Cards 101,441 


236  Kingdom  of  Siam 

Printed  Matter 470,413 

Samples 5,827 

Postal  Order 2,080 

Postal  Orders  (value  in  fr.) 149,097 

Post-offices 154 

Letter  Boxes 330 

Staff  and  Employees 705 

The  annual  number  of  post  cards  and  letters  per 
person  is  o.  12. 

(Values  are  given  in  francs  and  centimes  to  com- 
pare with  those  issued  by  the  International  Bureau 
at  Berne.) 

Siam  is  linked  to  the  telegraph  system  of  the 
world  at  three  points,  viz.,  Tavoy,  Saigon, 

Telegraphs. 

and  Penang. 

The  length  of  line  is  4710  kilometres  and  the 
number  of  offices  71. 

The  upkeep  of  the  lines  is  costly  and  difficult; 
the  rapid  growth  of  vegetation,  the  tropical  thunder- 
storms, and  the  insidious  insects  are  all  factors  which 
cause  rapid  deterioration  of  the  lines.  The  cost  of 
inland  telegrams  is  64  centimes  for  the  first  ten 
words  and  8  centimes  for  each  additional  word. 

Bangkok  is  well  supplied  with  telephones  and  also 
is  linked  to  some  of  the  neighboring 

Telephones. 

towns.     The  length  of  line  open  is  596 
kilometres. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
MINING 


237 


CHAPTER  XVII 

MINING,   BY  THE   DIRECTOR   OF  THE  DEPARTMENT 
OF  MINES  AND  GEOLOGY 

MINING  in  Siam  is  practically  confined  to  tin, 
gems  (sapphires  and  rubies),  and  gold,  their 
relative  importance  being  in  the  order  given. 

The  mining  industry  is  under  the  control  of  the 
Royal  Department  of  Mines  and  Geology,  which 
was  created  in  1890.  The  Siam  Mining  Act  of  1901 
is  now  in  force  for  most  parts  of  the  country,  and 
prospecting  licenses  and  mining  leases  may  be  ob- 
tained without  difficulty.  In  this  article  the  differ- 
ent minerals  mined  for  in  Siam  are  referred  to  in  the 
following  order:  gold,  copper,  lead,  iron,  tin,  gems, 
coal,  oil,  saltpetre. 

Gold  is  very  widely  distributed  in  Siam,  and  is 
washed  out  of  the  alluvium  by  the  natives  in  several 
districts.  The  chief  of  these  are  Pu  Kiriu, 

Gold. 

Bangtaphan,    Kow   Suplu,   and   Tomoh. 
In  the  last  district  Chinese  workers  carry  on  lode 

239 


240  Kingdom  of  Siam 

as  well  as  alluvial  mining.  The  native  gold-mining 
industry  is,  however,  a  very  unimportant  one,  the 
total  number  of  persons  regularly  employed  probably 
not  exceeding  one  thousand. 

Gold-mining  according  to  modern  methods  has 
been  far  from  successful  in  Siam.  Many  conces- 
sions have  been  granted  by  the  Government,  and 
much  capital  has  been  expended,  but  in  no  single 
instance  have  mining  operations  met  with  any  suc- 
cess. This  may  be  accounted  for  partly  by  the 
difficult  nature  of  the  country  for  carrying  on  mining 
by  modern  methods,  and  partly  by  bad  manage- 
ment, but  it  remains  to  be  seen  whether  the  future 
will  bring  forth  better  results. 

Copper,  is  known  to  exist  in  small  quantities  in 

several  districts,  the  best  known  being  at  Chan  Tuk. 

In  former  days  the  deposits  at  Chan  Tuk 

were  worked   to  a   small   extent   by  the 

Siamese,  and  during  the  last  few  years  a  European 

syndicate  has  attempted  to  open  up  the  mines,  but 

so  far  the  results  have  not  been  satisfactory.     There 

are  no  records  of  copper-mining  ever  having  been 

attempted  elsewhere. 

Lead  is  not  known  to  have  been  worked  in  Siam 
except  in  the  Malay  state  of  Jalar,  where  large 
veins  of  argentiferous  galena  are  found  in  the  lime- 


Mining  241 

stone.     Some  thirty  years  ago  these  were  worked 
by  a   Singapore    firm  with    considerable 
profit,  but  the  enterprise  had  to  be  aban- 
doned when  the  fall  in  the  price  of  lead  turned  the 
profit  into  a  loss. 

In  ancient  times  there  was  probably  a  considerable 
amount  of  iron-mining  and  smelting,  sufficient  at  all 
events  for  the  manufacture  of  weapons 

Iron. 

and  other  articles  in  common  use,  but  the 
opening  up  of  the  country  to  trade,  and  the  conse- 
quent import  of  foreign  iron,  have  practically  killed 
the  industry,  and  at  the  present  time  there  are  only 
a  few  places  where  iron  is  worked,  and  in  them  the 
industry  is  quite  insignificant. 

Tin  is  the  only  metal  the  working  of  which  is  of 
any  great  importance  in  Siam.  Tin  is  found  in 
small  quantities  in  the  valley  of  the  Nam 
Sak  River  and  in  various  places  in  north- 
ern Siam,  but  all  the  deposits  of  importance  are 
derived  from,  and  lie  adjacent  to,  the  great  line  of 
granitic  upheaval  which  forms  the  boundary  range 
between  central  Siam  and  Tenasserim  and  is  the 
backbone  of  the  Malay  Peninsula;  it  may  be  traced 
down  to  the  Dutch  islands  of  Billiton,  Banca,  and 
Singkep.  This  great  line  of  granite  is  the  source  of 
practically  all  the  vast  alluvial  deposits  of  tin  which 


242  Kingdom  of  Siam 

are  found  in  the  British,  Dutch,  and  Siamese  pos- 
sessions in  the  East  Indies.  The  Siamese  territory 
is  probably  as  well  off  in  this  respect  as  either  the 
British  or  Dutch,  and  the  deposits  are  very  widely 
distributed.  Tin  is  at  the  present  time  being- 
worked  in  the  following  provinces:  East  Coast— 
Ratburi,  Bangtaphan,  Langsuan,  Chaija,  Bandon, 
Lakon,  Jalar,  Rangeh,  Rahman,  Kelantan,  Trin- 
ganu.  West  Coast— Kra,  Renong,  Takupar,  Panga, 
Takuatung,  Puket,  Trang,  Stul,  Peril's,  Kedah. 

In  some  of  these  provinces  the  works  are  small 
and  unimportant,  but  the  total  annual  production  is 
little  short  of  five  thousand  long  tons,  of  a  value  of 
$3,000,000  (gold),  taking  the  price  of  tin  at  $600 
per  long  ton. 

Generally  speaking,  all  the  mining  is  in  the  hands 
of  Chinese;  the  labor  is  Chinese,  and  the  smelting  is 
done  locally  by  Chinese  methods.  The  only  excep- 
tions to  these  generalizations  are  that  one  British 
and  one  Dutch  company  are  working  in  Kedah,  and 
an  American  company  is  making  a  small  commence- 
ment in  Bangtaphan,  and  a  British  smelting  com- 
pany is  establishing  an  ore-buying  agency  in  Puket. 
The  number  of  Siamese  and  Malays  engaged  in  tin- 
mining  is  very  small. 

There  is  an  enormous  field  for  the  expansion  of 


Mining  243 

the  tin-mining  industry  in  the  Siamese  possessions 
in  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  considerable  activity  in 
prospecting,  on  the  part  of  European  and  American 
capitalists,  has  lately  been  shown. 

At  present,  Puket  Island  (on  the  west  coast)  is 
the  most  important  .tin-mining  centre  in  all  the 
Siamese  states ;  but  Kedah,  Takuapar,  and  Renong 
(also  on  the  west  coast)  have  a  considerable  mining 
industry.  On  the  east  coast,  Nakon  Sri,  Tamarat, 
and  Jalar  (Port  Patani)  are  the  chief  centres.  The 
most  promising  districts  for  future  developments  are 
in  Kedah,  Rahman,  Jalar,  Takuatung,  and  Renong. 

Sapphires  and  rubies  are  the  only  gems  the  work- 
ing of  which  is  of  any  importance,  though  spinels, 
zircons,  garnets,  and  topaz  are  also  pro- 

Gems. 

duced  to  a  small  extent.  Of  the  two 
forms  of  corundum,  sapphires  are  very  much  more 
abundant  and  more  largely  worked  than  rubies. 
Siamese  sapphires  form  a  considerable  proportion 
of  the  world's  supply  of  this  gem.  Statistics,  how- 
ever, are  not  available,  as  there  is  no  duty  on  the 
stones,  and  the  work  is  carried  on  by  numerous 
small  parties  of  men  and  even  by  individuals,  who 
dispose  of  their  findings  to  a  number  of  travelling 
traders.  Siamese  rubies  do  not  command  a  good 
price,  as  those  of  good  color  are  mostly  very  small, 


244  Kingdom  of  Siam 

whilst  those  of  good  size  are  of  poor  color.  It  is 
believed  that  any  really  good  stones  which  are 
found  are  sent  overland  to  Burmah  and  sold  as 
Burmese  rubies.  As  regards  statistics,  the  same 
remarks  apply  as  have  already  been  made  about 
sapphires. 

Practically  all  Siamese  sapphires  come  from  the 
district  of  Phailin  in  Battambong.  Rubies  are 
worked  in  a  small  way  in  the  same  district,  but  the 
chief  ruby  workings  are  in  Chantabun  and  Krat. 

The  deposits  are  all  alluvial,  work  being  usually 
carried  on  by  digging  numerous  small  pits  in  the 
neighborhood  of  streams,  the  gem -bearing  earth 
being  washed  by  hand  in  the  streams. 

Most  of  the  work  is  in  the  hands  of  Burmese  and 
Shans,  who,  however,  employ  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  Laos  as  laborers. 

The  gem  buyers  are  Burmese,  Shans,  Singalese, 
and  natives  of  British  India,  and  some  European 
firms  in  Bangkok  take  a  share  in  the  trade. 

The  gem-mining  districts  are,  for  the  most  part, 
exceedingly  unhealthy,  this  fact  being  a  great  bar 
to  European  enterprise  in  this  line. 

No  true  coal  is  known  to  occur  in  Siam.  A 
lignite  or  brown  coal  is  found  in  the  Malay  Penin- 
sula jn  various  places,  of  which  Bandon,  Gerbi, 


Mining  245 

Plien,   and  Trang   are  those   best  known.      There 
is   considerable   prospect   of  these   lignite  deposits 
being   successfully  exploited  in  the  near 
future,  but  it  is  as  yet  too  early  to  say 
anything  more  definite.     Real  coal  has  lately  been 
reported   from   Nakon   Sawan,  but  confirmation  is 
lacking. 

Petroleum  is  found  in  Muang-Fang,    in  the  ex- 
treme north  of  Siam.     The  amount  of  oil  produced 
is  quite   insignificant.     The  oil  may  be 
collected  by  skimming  the  water  which 
collects  in  shallow  pits  dug  for  the  purpose.       The 
oil  thus  collected  is  black  in  color  and  very  viscous. 
It  is  supposed  that  this  occurrence  is  geologically 
connected  with  the  oil-fields  of  Burmah. 

This  oil  is  not  likely  to  become  of  any  importance 
until  communications  have  very  much  improved. 
At  present  it  would  be  practically  impossible  to 
open  the  district  so  as  to  be  able  to  work  the  de- 
posits, even  if  they  have  any  value,  which  at  present 
is  an  open  question. 

Oil  has  been  frequently  reported  in  Kedah,  and 
experts  have  pronounced  it  to  be  there,  but  it  is 
very  doubtful  whether  there  is  any  truth  in  these 
assertions,  and  no  samples  have  ever  been  obtained. 
It  appears  that  people  have  been  misled  by  the 


246  Kingdom  of  Siam 

presence  of  considerable  quantities  of  marsh-gas  in 
some  undrained  ground. 

In    the    limestone    hills    of    Lopburi,    Saraburi, 
Buachum,  and  the  Prabart  district  there  are  numer- 
ous caves,  many  of  which  contain  thick 

Saltpetre. 

deposits  of  bat  guano.  From  time  im- 
memorial these  have  been  worked  for  potassium 
nitrate,  for  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder  and 
medicine.  At  the  present  time  it  is  still  worked  in- 
termittently for  the  same  purposes,  and  within  the 
last  few  years  some  has  been  sold  in  Bangkok  for 
the  manufacture  of  fireworks.  Quite  recently  at- 
tempts have  been  made  to  work  it  on  a  considerable 
scale  and  export  it  to  Japan.  The  difficulties  to 
transport  are,  however,  great,  and  success  is  not  yet 
assured. 

The  native  method  of  procedure  is  to  boil  the 
crude  guano  with  wood  ashes  in  pans.  The  liquid 
is  skimmed  and  allowed  to  crystallize.  The  crystals 
thus  obtained  are  extracted  and  again  treated  in  the 
same  way.  The  resulting  saltpetre  is  of  a  slightly 
brown  color  and  assays  about  ninety-five  per  cent, 
potassium  nitrate.  Sodium  nitrate  is  almost  entirely 
absent. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

COMMERCE 


247 


CHAPTER    XVIII 

COMMERCE,    BY    THE    ASSISTANT    DIRECTOR    OF 
CUSTOMS 

SIAM  has  ranked  herself  amongst  commercial 
nations  for  nearly  four  centuries.  As  early 
as  1511  it  is  recorded  that  the  Portuguese  traded 
at  Bangkok,  and  subsequently  the  Japanese,  the 
Dutch,  and  the  British  all  entered  more  or  less  into 
commerce  with  her.  It  was  not,  however,  until 
1856  that  its  present  trade  with  almost  all  the  com- 
mercial peoples  of  the  world  took  definite  root.  In 
this  year  Sir  John  Bowring,  on  behalf  of  the  British, 
entered  into  a  treaty  with  Siam,  and  was  followed 
during  the  succeeding  years  by  the  representatives 
of  the  other  commercial  nations,  until  now  there  are 
no  fewer  than  fourteen  distinct  countries  which  com- 
plete the  circle  of  Siam's  treaty  friends. 

Trade  for  many  years  appears  to  have  fluctuated 
from  various  causes,  but  during  the  last  twenty 
years  it  has  steadily  grown, 

249 


250  Kingdom  of  Siam 

The  total  export  for  1902  was  valued  at  87,401,- 
889  ticals;  five  years  ago  (1897),  it  was  57,689,792 
ticals.  The  total  value  of  imports  for  1902 
amounted  to  65,420,231  ticals,  and  in  1897  it  was 
40,973,403  ticals  (5  ticals  =  $3  Mex.,  or  17  ticals  = 
£i  sterling  approximately). 

The  principal  productions  of  Siam  are  rice  and 
teak-wood.  There  are  at  present  in  Bangkok  thirty- 
six  mills  and  in  the  Patriew  district  east  of  Bangkok 
four  others,  whilst  eight  new  ones  are  in  course  of 
erection.  The  mills  are  more  than  sufficient  for  the 
handling  of  the  crop,  and  the  result  is  great  com- 
petition amongst  the  millers  when  buying  from  the 
farmer  or  middleman.  This  has  a  detrimental  re- 
sult upon  the  growers,  who  are  growing  careless  as 
to  quality,  or  the  manner  in  which  the  paddy  is 
prepared  for  the  market.  The  soil  is,  however,  rich, 
and  the  price  of  the  finished  product  has  held  its 
own  as  compared  with  the  Burmese  or  Indo-China 
rice  on  the  Singapore,  Hong- Kong,  and  occasionally 
the  European  market.  With  care  and  with  an  ex- 
tension of  the  irrigation  system  which  at  present 
exists,  the  quality  of  the  paddy  could  be  much  im- 
proved and  its  production  largely  increased.  Atten- 
tion is  now  being  devoted  to  these  matters  under 
the  supervision  of  the  Agricultural  Department. 


Commerce  251 

Year  by  year  more  rice  is  being  exported,  principally 
due  to  the  fact  that  more  land  is  coming  under  cul- 
tivation, the  quantities  shipped  for  the  past  three 
years  being  as  follows :  1900,  6,962,476  piculs ;  1901, 
ii,5o6,736piculs;  1902,  13,414,441  piculs.  Picul  = 
133^  Ibs.  avoir. 

The  trade  in  teak  depends  each  year  on  the  rain- 
fall. The  wood  is  felled  far  from  the  rivers  and  is 
floated  down  the  creeks  until  it  meets  the 

Teak. 

main  stream,  where  it  is  gathered  into 
rafts  and  sent  on  its  way  down  the  Menam  to  Bang- 
kok. Here  it  is  exported  to  the  principal  countries 
of  the  world,  India  and  Europe,  however,  being 
Siam's  best  customers  for  this  article.  The  quan- 
tities exported  during  the  past  three  years  are  as 
follows:  1900,  45,261  tons;  1901,  43,735  tons ;  1902, 
56,075  tons. 

Siam  has  a  considerable  export  trade  in  marine 
products — beche-de-mer,  dried  and  salt  other 

fish,  fish  maws,  prawns,  sharks'  fins,  turtle  Goods, 
shells,  and  ray  skins. 

Pepper  is  exported  largely  from  Bangkok,  it  being 
first  removed  in  coasting  steamers  from  the  Chanta- 
bun  district,  where  it  is  grown.  Black  pepper  is  no 
longer  exported.  White  pepper — that  is,  the  pepper 
with  the  outer  husk  removed— is  sent  year  by  year 


252  Kingdom  of  Siam 

to  London,  Liverpool,  ports  on  the  continent  of 
Europe,  and  to  New  York  and  San  Francisco.  On 
the  west  coast  of  the  peninsula  pepper  is  also  grown 
and  finds  its  way,  via  Penang,  to  the  various  markets 
of  the  world.  The  export  value  of  pepper  for  the 
year  1902  was  equal  to  nearly  one  million  ticals. 

Various  sorts  of  wood  are  produced  and  ex- 
ported, such  as  agilla,  sapan,  padoo,  yellow-wood, 
box,  ebony,  and  rose,  but  the  trade  in  these  woods 
does  not  seem  to  increase,  as  no  effort  is  made  to 
grow  them  systematically.  Jungle  products,  such 
as  hides  and  horns,  are  gradually  being  worked  out, 
and  will  in  time  disappear  unless  efforts  are  made  to 
preserve  the  deer  in  the  interior.  Rubies  and  sap- 
phires are  exported  in  a  rough  condition  for  sale  on 
the  London  market.  This  trade,  however,  seems 
to  be  gradually  diminishing.  The  silk  trade  looks 
to  be  entering  on  a  more  prosperous  future.  Under 
Japanese  instructors  the  Siamese  are  developing  the 
production  of  this  article,  and  it  is  hoped  that  in 
time  it  will  become  one  of  Siam's  most  important 
industries. 

Bullocks  are  exported  to  Singapore.  This  trade  is 
not  improving,  for  various  reasons.  Disease  has  un- 
fortunately year  by  year  prevented  the  exportation 
for  some  months  at  a  time.  The  trade  is  a  profit- 


Commerce  253 

able  one,  and  every  effort  is  made  by  the  dealers 
to  secure  animals,  but  up  to  the  present  cattle- 
breeding  is  not  sufficiently  organized  to  create 
a  permanent  supply,  hence  this  branch  runs  the 
risk  of  extinction  by  the  exhaustion  of  the  supplies 
available. 

The  imports  of  Siam  cover  the  whole  field  of 
manufactured  articles,  and  they  are  drawn  from 
almost  every  part  of  the  globe.  Cotton 

11        i  i  .  -•  Imports. 

goods  bulk  largely  in  every  imported 
cargo  of  general  goods.  They  come  principally  from 
England,  India,  Switzerland,  Italy,  Holland,  Ger- 
many, France,  and  Denmark,  being  almost  invari- 
ably transshipped  at  Singapore,  and  from  America 
and  Japan,  coming  via  Hong-Kong.  Cotton  goods 
are  amongst  the  most  valuable  imported.  The 
people  are  year  by  year  demanding  more  cloth- 
ing, as  the  fashion  for  wearing  foreign  cloth  extends 
gradually  over  the  whole  interior.  The  printed 
cottons  for  nether  garments,  called  by  the  Siamese 
"  palais  "  or  "patas,"  come  principally  from  India  and 
Switzerland,  while  the  plain  woven  patterns  in  one 
color  come  from  Britain  and  Switzerland,  India  not 
competing.  Singapore  seems  to  be  the  market  for 
Siam  to  buy  its  gray  and  white  shirting  in ;  ninety 
per  cent,  of  the  importation  comes  from  that  port, 


254  Kingdom  of  Siam 

The  countries  of  production  vary,  but  Manchester 
and  Indian  goods  seem  to  predominate,  Holland 
and  Germany  being  the  only  two  countries  to 
compete. 

Silk  piece-goods  are  imported  mostly  from  Hong- 
Kong  and  are  used  for  clothing  by  the  local  Chinese. 
Half  the  importation  is  exported  after  being  dyed 
black.  This  dyeing  trade  in  Siam  has  been  going 
on  for  years.  A  berry  which  grows  in  the  jungle 
produces  the  dye,  which  does  not  keep  in  fit  con- 
dition for  any  length  of  time,  and  it  is  therefore 
necessary  to  bring  the  cloth  to  the  place  where  the 
dye  is  made. 

Books  and  printed  matter  are  supplied  mostly 
from  England. 

Denmark  sends  Siam  her  cement.  Chemical  pro- 
ducts come  from  Singapore,  Hong  -  Kong,  and 
Britain. 

China  sends  her  earthenware.  Electrical  goods 
are  equally  supplied  by  the  United  States,  Britain, 
and  Germany. 

Fifteen  different  countries  help  to  supply  the 
Siamese  market  with  hardware  and  cutlery,  Ger- 
many, Britain,  and  China  taking  the  lead. 

Hats  and  caps  and  household  furniture  are  sup- 
plied from  Hong-Kong  and  China. 


Commerce  255 

Lamps  and  parts  are  imported  from  Hong-Kong, 
Germany,  and  the  United  States. 

Machinery  is  supplied  by  Germany,  Britain,  and 
the  United  States. 

Oil  (burning)  is  now  almost  exclusively  supplied 
from  Sumatra. 

Provisions,  vegetables,  etc.,  come  from  Hong- 
Kong  and  China. 

Though  tobacco  is  locally  grown  it  still  takes  over 
seventeen  different  countries  to  supply  the  Siamese 
with  his  tobacco;  Hong-Kong,  however,  furnishes 
by  far  the  largest  portion,  but  this  Hong-Kong 
tobacco  comes  in  great  part  originally  from  the 
United  States. 

The  Siamese,  though  great  smokers,  do  not  drink 
so  much  spirit  as  the  people  of  the  West.  Ger- 
many, France,  and  England  supply  beer,  whiskey, 
and  brandy,  but  the  rice  spirit,  known  as  "  samshoo," 
is  supplied  exclusively  from  Hong-Kong  and  China. 
The  balance  of  trade  lies  entirely  with  Siam,  whose 
exports  exceeded  its  imports  in  value  by  no  less  than 
thirty  per  cent,  in  1902.  This  varies,  of  course, 
year  by  year  with  the  rain  supply,  but  it  never  has 
gone  the  other  way  so  far. 

The  number  of  vessels  entered  at  the  port  of 
Bangkok  during  the  year  1902  was  727,  five  of 


256  Kingdom  of  Siam 

which  were  sailing  vessels.  The  tons  of  shipping 
represented  by  the  above  amounted  to  631,458. 
Besides  the  above,  fifty-three  junks  entered  with 
cargo  from  China.  The  German  vessels  hold  the 
lead  in  Bangkok  shipping.  The  two  principal  lines 
to  Singapore  and  to  Hong-Kong  sail  under  that  flag. 
Two  Chinese-owned  steamers  trade  between  Bang- 
kok and  Singapore  under  the  British  flag,  but  lat- 
terly that  flag  has  dropped  to  the  third  place  in  the 
customs  statistics,  as  the  number  of  Norwegian 
steamers  has  increased  greatly  during  the  past  two 
years.  This  is  due  to  the  Chinese  exporters  of  rice 
desiring  to  have  steamers  under  their  own  control 
so  as  to  take  every  advantage  of  the  market  when 
favorable  either  in  Singapore,  Hong-Kong,  or  any 
other  neighboring  port.  As  many  as  twenty  vessels 
have  been  in  the  Menam  at  one  time  during  the  past 
year,  and  as  they  discharge  and  load  by  means  of 
cargo  boats  the  river  is  at  times  alive  with  craft  and 
presents  a  most  busy  appearance.  The  vessels  do 
not  load  up  at  Bangkok.  They  must  cross  the  bar 
light  and  fill  up  at  the  outer  anchorage — Kohsichang 
Island  or  Anghin  Head5  according  to  the  monsoon. 
Lorchas  or  large  sailing  lighters  with  a  few  steam 
tug-barges  are  engaged  in  carrying  cargo  to  those 
anchorages,  to  be  there  transshipped.  A  French 


Commerce  257 

liner  runs  regularly  between  Bangkok  and  Saigon 
carrying  the  mail.  Its  trade  is,  however,  insignifi- 
cant. 

The  caravan  trade  in  the  interior  was  at  one  time 
a  large  and  flourishing  one.  Latterly  it  has 
dwindled  away  until  now  it  is  really  of  no  import- 
ance. The  route  from  Moulmein  to  Raheng  is  the 
busiest  one,  but  the  total  import  by  that  route  last 
year  did  not  amount  in  value  to  more  than  100,000 
ticals.  About  60,000  of  these  were  for  cotton 
goods  generally,  20,000  were  for  gold  leaf  and  jew- 
elry, and  the  remainder  brassware,  etc.  In  return 
there  were  exported  by  this  route  bullocks  and 
ponies  to  the  value  of  12,000  ticals,  and  native-made 
dresses  of  silk  and  cotton,  called  "panungs,"  to  the 
value  of  40,000  ticals.  The  caravan  route  from 
China  to  Chieng  Mai  and  Nan  is  of  no  importance. 
The  travellers  coming  that  way  are  mere  hucksters 
who  buy  and  sell  as  they  travel  along.  They  will 
soon  have  to  give  way  before  the  importation  of 
European  goods,  which  in  a  short  time,  by  means 
1  of  the  rapidly  advancing  railway,  will  spread  far  and 
wide  over  the  northern  parts  of  the  country.  Mean- 
time it  is  a  most  expensive  operation  to  move  goods 
to  the  north  by  boat. 

In  conclusion  it  is  evident  that  Siam  has  every 


258 


Kingdom  of  Siam 


prospect  of  a  great  commercial  future.  The  admin- 
istration is  being  rapidly  improved,  each  department 
getting  its  due  share  of  attention.  The  security 
due  to  good  government  will  help  to  encourage 
trade  and  enable  European  and  American  goods  to 
be  within  the  reach  of  all.  In  return  Siam  can  feed 
the  East  and  can  supply  the  European  market  with 
rice  of  a  very  fine  quality,  with  teak-wood,  and  with 
silk,  each  of  which  has  hardly  a  rival.  The  tables 
shown  hereunder  will  prove  that  it  is  no  vain  boast 
to  predict  an  important  commercial  advance  in  the 
near  future. 

TABLE  A. — VALUES  OF  PRINCIPAL  EXPORTS 


1900 

1901 

I9O2 

Rice                   ... 

Ticals 
-77  460  507 

Ticals 
60  268  327 

Ticals 
6q  846  078 

Teak  

5.4QQ  134 

4  214,077 

6  546  byi 

Tin  

13,343 

112,247 

172,341 

Bullocks           

8l7  247 

575  Q7O 

556  350 

Fish  (Fresh,    Dried,    and    Salt), 
Mussels   etc            . 

2  O3Q  426 

2  911  671 

2  1  3O  663 

Birds'  Nests                                  .  . 

IQ7  273 

4O2  552 

268  635 

Sticklac  ......... 

164  715 

292  718 

37°  779 

Gamboge  and  Gum  Benjamin.  .  . 
Teel-Seed            

27,710 
137  ?6o 

I5,"3 
126,415 

29,681 

7Q  5O2 

Hides  and  Horns  

777  5!Q 

780,058 

1,266,661 

Woods  Other  than  Teak 

C.IT.  046 

5OO  1  80 

513  713 

Pepper 

785  525 

I  435,120 

qqO,266 

Commerce 

TABLE  B. — VALUES  OF  PRINCIPAL  IMPORTS 


259 


1900 

I9OI 

I9O2 

Ticals 
5,831,961 

Ticals 
8,347,904 

Ticals 
10.497,62'? 

Silk  Goods                  

2  084.  050 

i  822  116 

I  Q76  231 

Gunny-Bags            >  .  .  .  . 

I   53Q  QO2 

2,345,963 

2,888,703 

Petroleum  

1,648,622 

1,108,133 

1,136,060 

Machinery                              .    .  . 

I  "3O2  342 

I  QQ2  OQ8 

2  O35  8dd 

Sugar      

I  714  833 

1,449,630 

2,061  2^7 

I,O79,Ol8 

1,037,553 

939,202 

Opium  .......                       .. 

2  377  24O 

2,l63,277 

2  OQI   ^78 

CHAPTER  XIX 

THE  INDUSTRIES  OF  SIAM 


261 


CHAPTER   XIX 

THE    INDUSTRIES    OF    SIAM,    BY    THE    SECRETARY- 
GENERAL 

SIAM  is  emphatically  an  agricultural  country  and 
not  a  manufacturing  one.      This  may  be  ac- 
counted   for    partly    by    its   geological    formation, 
partly  by  its  climate,  and  partly  by  the  scantiness 
of  its  population. 

The  greater  part  of  Siam,  in  fact  nearly  the  whole 
of  Lower  Siam,  is  alluvial,  and  up  to  the  present 
coal  has  not  yet  been  found  in  paying  quantities  in 
any  part  of  the  kingdom,  the  consequence  being 
that  the  only  native  fuel,  except  the  husks  of  the 
rice,  is  wood,  the  price  of  which  as  a  fuel  has  stead- 
ily increased  and  is  likely  to  still  further  increase. 
The  climate  being  tropical  is  an  important  factor  in 
the  readiness  of  the  people  to  submit  to  continuous 
manual  labor,  and  the  needs  of  a  tropical  population 
are  so  much  fewer  than  those  of  a  people  to  whom 
artificial  warmth  is  an  absolute  necessity. 

263 


264  Kingdom  of  Siam 

The  vast  extent  of  land  suitable  for  agricultural 
operations  offers  to  those  willing  to  work  a  more 
attractive  career  than  toiling  for  a  daily  wage. 

The  mills  for  rice  and  teak  probably  are  the 
largest  employers  of  day  labor,  the  number  of 
rice-mills  in  Bangkok  being  thirty-six  and  sawmills 
eleven.  The  steam  rice-mills  run  continuously  day 
and  night,  employing  two  shifts,  but  the  sawmills 
work  only  by  day. 

The  trained  hands  are  employed  continuously, 
but  the  number  of  unskilled  laborers  varies  from 
day  to  day.  A  large  proportion  of  these  laborers 
are  Chinese,  particularly  those  employed  in  shifting 
the  grain  from  the  boats  to  the  mill  and  back  again, 
all  of  which  work  is  performed  by  hand.  The 
estimated  number  of  hands,  skilled  and  unskilled, 
employed  in  the  mills  is  about  ten  thousand. 

Fishing  is  another  industry  of  great  importance. 
The  greater  part  of  the  fish  caught  is  dried  or 
salted,  and  a  large  export  is  done  in  various  kinds  of 
preserved  fish  to  Singapore  and  Hong-Kong. 

The  favorite  method  of  catching  fish  is  by  gigantic 
traps.  These  traps  are  constructed  of  bamboos 
fixed  upright  in  the  shallow  water ;  a  long  V-shaped 
neck,  with  an  opening  sometimes  extending  to  a 
quarter  of  a  mile,  leads  into  a  compartment  some 


The  Industries  of  Siam          265 

sixty  feet  square  by  a  narrow  aperture.  The  fish, 
guided  by  the  walls  of  the  V,  are  caught  in  the  trap, 
which  is  netted  every  two  or  three  days. 

The  amount  of  fish  caught  annually  is  enormous; 
not  only  is  it  eaten  fresh  or  dry  at  every  meal  by 
the  inhabitants  of  Lower  Siam,  but  there  is  a  large 
surplus  for  export. 

Boat-building  is  perhaps  the  most  widely  ex- 
tended industry,  being  carried  on  over  the  whole 
country,  each  district  building  the  boats  adapted  to 
the  local  needs.  In  the  capital  a  large  number  of 
steam  launches  and  small  sailing  lighters  are  built. 
Ship-building,  which  was  formerly  an  important 
industry,  has  disappeared  with  the  introduction  of 
iron  steamers. 

The  manufacture  of  spirits  is  a  state  monopoly 
and  is  farmed  out  to  the  spirit  farmers  in  every  pro- 
vince. Licenses  to  conduct  a  distillery  are  issued 
to  any  one  applying,  but  the  spirits  must  be  sold  at 
a  rate  fixed  by  the  farmer,  who  usually  takes  the 
whole  output. 

Sugar  of  a  coarse  quality  is  also  largely  manufac- 
tured from  the  sugar-cane;  there  is  no  direct  tax  on 
its  manufacture,  but  it  can  only  be  sold  in  pots 
supplied  by  the  government  manufactories. 

Salt  is  extracted  from  sea-water  at  various  places 


266  Kingdom  of  Siam 

along  the  coast.  These  salt  farms  are  situated  on 
low  lands  near  the  coast,  which  are  flooded  at  high 
tide;  each  field  is  surrounded  by  a  bank  of  earth 
which  retains  the  water.  The  sea-water  is  admitted 
at  high  tide  and  allowed  to  evaporate  by  the  heat  of 
the  sun,  and  the  field  filled  up  with  fresh  sea-water 
from  time  to  time  till  the  brine  is  sufficiently  strong 
to  crystallize. 

A  large  amount  of  coarse,  unglazed  earthenware  is 
made — large  jars  of  fifteen  to  twenty  gallons'  capac- 
ity for  storing  water,  pots  for  boiling  rice,  small 
charcoal  stoves,  tiles  for  roofing,  etc.  Except  the 
large  jars,  known  as  Siam  jars,  few  of  these  articles 
are  exported. 

Weaving  exists  only  as  a  home  industry ;  the  silk 
is  produced  in  Siam  (see  sericulture),  but  the  yarn  is 
imported,  chiefly  from  India. 

Two  minor  industries  are  the  collection  of  gum 
benjamin  and  gamboge;  gum  benjamin  is  indige- 
nous to  the  north  of  Siam,  and  gamboge  grows  only 
on  the  coast.  These  valuable  resins  are  obtained 
from  their  respective  tree  by  making  incisions  in 
the  bark  and  allowing  the  resin  to  ooze  slowly  out, 
where  it  is  collected  in  hollow  bamboos  and  sent  to 
Bangkok  for  export. 

Although  silkworms  have  always  been  cultivated 


The  Industries  of  Siam  267 

in  Siam  and  a  large  amount  of  silk  produced  for 
home  use,  there  has  been  but  little  export,  and  the 
value  of  raw  silk  exported  has  seldom  been  over 
20,000  ticals  per  annum. 

The  Government  have  now  taken  the  matter  in 
hand,  and  a  special  department  of  sericulture  has 
been  organized  under  the  Ministry  of  Sericulture 
Agriculture.  Japanese  experts  have  been  Department, 
engaged  to  introduce  the  latest  scientific  methods 
and  two  experimental  farms  have  been  started. 

The  native  grains  or  eggs  are  of  a  flat,  ovoidal 
shape   and  a  light    yellow    color,    which   turns   to 
grayish-blue   when  they  begin  to  hatch. 
The    average    weight    of    the    grains    is 
0.04527  gr.  per  hundred,  and  their  average  length 
and  breadth  1.15  mm.  and  0.98  mm.,  respectively. 

These  grains  are  smaller  than  either  Japanese  or 
Chinese  grains,  and  in  consequence  produce  smaller 
worms. 

When  hatched,  the  worm  is  about  2  mm.  in 
length  and  reaches  maturity  in  about 

"Worms. 

one  month. 

Compared  with  foreign  varieties  their  growth  is 
very  rapid,  while  the  weight  of  leaves  consumed  is 
about  one  half.  They  are  extremely  healthy  and 
the  amount  of  disease  small. 


268  Kingdom  of  Siam 

The  average  number  of  eggs  deposited  by  a  native 
moth  is  from  260  to  350. 

The  cycle  of  the  Siamese  variety  is  as  follows : 

Egg  Stage 10  days 

Larva 25-32    " 

Pupa 10-12    ' ' 

Moth  (Image) 3-4    " 

Total 48-58  days 

It  is  thus  possible  to  rear  these  worms  seven  to 
eight  times  a  year,  provided  a  sufficient  crop  of 
mulberry  leaves  can  be  obtained. 

According  to  the  results  obtained  at  the  Govern- 
ment Experimental  Station,  it  requires  twelve  to 
sixteen  kilos  of  leaves  to  produce  one  kilo  of  silk. 

The  cocoons  of  the  Siamese  varieties  are  long, 
ellipsoidal,  tapering  and  pointed  at  both 
ends,  and  surrounded  by  much  floss. 

The  length  of  silk  per  cocoon  is  from  200  to  250 
metres,  and  the  yield  of  silk  is  as  follows : 

370  grams  silken  matter 
630      "      non-silken  matter 

looo  grams  cocoons 

One  kilo  of  fresh  cocoons  yielded 

75  grams  good  raw  silk 
40-45       "      inferior  raw  silk 
4-5      "      waste  silk 


The  Industries  of  Siam  269 

Under  scientific  methods  the  amount  of  good  raw 
silk  has  already  been  increased  by  thirty  per  cent. 

The  two  known  kinds  of  native  worms  are  (i) 
plain  white ;  (2)  vers  tigr£s. 

The  first  (plain  white)  is  the  better  variety  and 
yields  silk  twenty-seven  to  forty-five  per  cent, 
longer  per  cocoon  than  the  latter  variety. 

The  size  of  the  bave  is  smaller  than  that  of  foreign 
varieties  and  yields  a  fine  raw  silk,  which 

The  Have. 

has  a  higher  market   value  than  larger- 
sized  raw  silk. 

In  Siam  it  is  found  that  one  rai  of  land  (1600 
square  metres)  will  yield  about  2000  kilos  of  mul- 
berry leaves,  and  14  kilos  of  leaves  pro- 
Rearing. 

duce  one  kilo  of  cocoons,  yielding  75  to 
78  grams  of  good  raw  silk,  hence  one  rai  of  land 
will  give  between   10  and   n  kilos  of  raw  silk  per 
annum,  valued  at  200  to  300  ticals. 

The  cost  of  reeling  the  silk  on  a  large  scale  is 
about  nine  ticals  per  kilo. 

It  is  the  intention  of  the  Government  to  foster 
the  silk  industry  in  every  possible  way  among  the 
farmers,  who  will  be  encouraged  to  plant  mulberry- 
trees  and  rear  the  worms  under  scientific  methods, 
in  which  they  will  be  instructed  either  at  the  experi- 
ment stations  or  by  travelling  instructors.  If 


270  Kingdom  of  Siam 

found  desirable,  the  Government  will  erect  a  large 
central  station  for  reeling  the  cocoons  in  order  to 
obtain  silk  of  fixed  qualities. 

Formerly  a  large  amount  of  paper  was  made  in 

paper-  Siam,  but  owing  to  the  import  of  cheap 

foreign  paper  this  industry  has   greatly 

declined  and  only  a  small  quantity  is  now  produced. 

The  paper  is  made  from  the  bark  of  the  koi-tree 
(Streblus  asperci},  which  grows  wild  in  Upper  Siam, 
and  from  there  is  brought  down  to  Bangkok.  The 
bark  is  first  dipped  in  a  strong  solution  of  lime  and 
allowed  to  drain,  exposed  to  the  air ;  is  then  steamed 
for  twenty-four  hours,  and  the  soft  fibre  collected 
in  jars;  from  them  it  is  taken  out  and  beaten  to 
pulp  by  mallets  on  a  flat  board ;  when  completely 
pulped  it  is  made  into  balls,  each  about  the  size  of 
a  cricket-ball. 

The  paper-maker  takes  one  of  these  balls  and 
places  it  in  a  bucket  made  of  woven  bamboo,  which 
he  dips  full  of  water  and  stirs  up  the  pulp  with  his 
hand.  This  work  is  generally  done  on  the  edge  of 
a  stream  or  pond.  He  then  floats  in  front  of  him  a 
wooden  tray,  the  bottom  of  which  is  coarse  canvas. 
By  a  dexterous  movement  he  pours  the  bucket  of 
liquid  pulp  into  the  tray  so  as  to  cover  it  evenly 
with  pulp ;  he  then  lifts  out  the  tray,  drains  it,  and 


A  RUINED  TEMPLE 


The  Industries  of  Siam  271 

presses  the  superfluous  water  out  of  the  pulp  with 
a  bamboo  roller.  The  pulp  adheres  to  the  canvas, 
and  the  tray  is  set  up  on  end  and  allowed  to  dry  for 
twenty-four  hours.  The  paper  is  then  stripped  off, 
covered  with  fine  rice  starch,  polished  with  a  smooth 
stone,  and  made  into  long,  folded  books. 

Should  the  paper  be  required  to  have  a  smooth 
black  surface  the  starch  is  mixed  with  fine  charcoal 
made  from  the  Acscliynomeme  aspera ;  the  paste  is 
then  spread  over  the  rough  paper  and  polished. 

The  casting  of  bronze  figures  has  been  an  art  in 
Siam  from  time  immemorial.  The  process  followed 
is  always  that  of  cire  fondu.  The  artist  Bronze  and 

Terra-Cotta 

first  models  the  figure  in  clay  coated  with  work, 

wax,  then  coats  it  again  in  clay,  and  by  the  applica- 
tion of  heat  allows  the  wax  to  run  out;  separate 
tubes  are  made  to  allow  the  metal  to  find  its  way  to 
the  smaller  parts  of  the  figure.  The  founder,  who 
is  generally  the  artist  himself,  then  pours  in  the 
molten  metal,  and  when  cool  the  mould  is  broken 
and  the  figure  cleaned  and  polished ;  each  figure  is 
thus  an  original  work,  and  a  new  wax  model  is  made 
by  the  artist  for  each.  A  few  years  ago,  Phra  Pra- 
siddhi  cast  a  figure  of  the  Buddha  for  the  Wat  Ben- 
chamabophit,  the  base  of  which  was  nine  feet  six 
inches  and  the  height  twelve  feet,  which  is  one  of 


272 


Kingdom  of  Siam 


the  finest  modern  statues  of  Siam.  Terra-cotta 
figures  are  made  by  the  aitist,  who  also  superintends 
the  burning,  assisted  by  his  pupils.  Unfortunately 
sufficient  care  is  not  taken  in  the  selection  and 
cleansing  of  the  clay  so  that  when  baked  the  color 
of  the  figures  is  not  even. 


INDEX 


273 


INDEX 


Abattoirs  under  government 
control,  113 

Administration,  1 1 

Advisers,  number  of  legal,  1 93 

Agriculture,  chapter  on,  153; 
cost  of  Ministry  of,  136 

Alphabet,  similarity  of  Sans- 
krit and  Siamese,  90 

Altitude,  average  of,  in  Siam, 

3° 

American  Presbyterian  Mis- 
sion, school  of,  207 

Ancient  cities  of  Siam,   215 

Annals  of  Bangkok,  historical 
value  of,  83 

Annals  of  the  North,  historical 
value  of,  80 

Appeals,  ease  of  taking,  187, 
189 

Archaeology,  chapter  on 
Siamese,  213 

Army,  equipment  of,  69; 
organization  of,  69;  im- 
provement of,  65 

Artillery,  equipment  of,  70 

Assumption  College  referred 
to,  207 

Awakening  of  Siam,  84 

Ayuthia,  ancient  capital,  81 

Bangkapong  River  described, 

36 

Bangkok,  chapter  on,  105; 
establishment  of  capital  at, 
83 


Banks  in  Siam,  names  of,  147 
Betel  leaf,  cultivation  of,  167 
Betel  nut,  growth  of,  166 
Bhanurangsi,  brother  of  the 

King,  5 

Boat-houses  referred  to,  109 
Boats,  building  of,   29,   265; 

description  of,  47 ;  number 

of,  30;   propulsion  of,  231 
Brahminism,    beginnings   of, 

in  Siam,  214 
Brick,  early  use  of,  in  Siam, 

218 
Bronze,   casting  of,   27,   271; 

early  examples  of,  225 
Brothers  of  the  King,  5 
Buddhism,  beginnings  of,  in 

Siam,  214;  religion  of  Siam, 

95;  form  of,  99 
Budget  of  Siam,  129 
Building    materials    in     an- 
cient temples,  218 
Business,    aggregate    volume 

of,  148 

Cambodian   people,    descrip- 
tion of,  53 

Caravans,  extent  of,  232,  257 
Cases,  number  of  trial,  195 
Cattle,  trade  in,   113 
Cavalry,  limited  use  of.  70 
Caves,  early  use  of,  as  tem- 
ples, 22 

Chantaboon,  rainfall  at,  41 
Chieng-Mai,  journey  to,  30 


275 


2  76 


Index 


Chulalongkorn,  birth  of  King, 

3 

Cities  of  Siam,  46 
Civil  service,  school  for,  206 
Coal,  absence  of,  244 
Cocoanut,  growth  of,  168 
Coins,  names  and  values  of, 

145 

College,  Royal  Military,  71 
Commerce,  chapter  on,  249 
Commissioners,  duties  of,  14 
Communication,  means  of,  54 
Convictions,    percentage    of, 

i9S 

Copper,  extent  of,  240 
Cotton,  cultivation  of,  164 
Council  of  Ministers,  9 
Courts   of  justice  described, 

187 
Criminal  procedure,  method 

of,  1 88 

Criminal  statistics,  126 
Crown  Prince,  born,  4;   edu- 
cated,  4;    Inspector  -  Gen- 
eral, 72 

Currency,  chapter  on,  143 
Customs,  rate  of,  132 
Cyclones  rare  in  Siam,  42 


Death,    Buddhistic   idea   of, 

100 
Death  sentences,  number  of, 

196;    execution  for,   199 
Description  of  Siam,  19 
Dignitaries    of    the    ecclesi- 
astical order,  96 
Diseases,  prevalent,  31 
District,  composition  of,  14 
Divorce,  rarity  of,  45 
Dockyard  facilities,   73 
Doi  Sutep,  height  of,  30 
Drainage    system    at    Bang- 
kok, 117 

Dress,  national,  46 
Dusit  Park  described,  108 


Eastern  Siam,  climate  of,  52; 

description  of,  49 
Education,  chapter  on,   203; 

form  of  military,  70 ;  naval, 

73 
Elephants,  home  of,  37;   use 

of,  232 
English  schools,  number  of, 

206 

Epigraphy,  little  evidence  re- 
garding early  forms  of,  221 
Eras,  number  and  names  of, 

80,  224 

Exchange,  rate  of,  144 
Expenditures,     amount     of, 

129,  134 
Exports,  total,  for  1902,  250, 

258 

Family,  Royal,  3 

Farms,  size  of,  48 

Fauna  of  the  Malay  Penin- 
sula, 6 1 

Finance,  chapter  on,  129; 
expenditures  of  the  Min- 
istry of,  136 

Finger  print  used  for  the  de- 
tection of  criminals,  125 

Fish,  prevalence  of,  for  food, 
24 

Fishing,  methods  of,  264 

Flora  of  Malay  provinces,  61 

Foreign  causes,  court  of,  191 

Forestry  Department,  1 5 ; 
chapter  on,  173;  cost  of, 

J35 

Forests,  extent  of,  50;  of 
Upper  Siam,  22 

Frankfurter,  O.,  author  of 
Siam  from  an  Historical 
Standpoint,  79;  Language 
of  Siam,  89;  Religion  of 
Siam,  95 


Gambling,  suppression  of,  132 


Index 


277 


Gendarmerie,  cost  of,  135; 
described,  74;  schools  for, 

Geology  of  Upper  Si  am,  22 

Gerini,  Colonel,  author  of 
chapter  on  Siamese  Ar- 
chaeology, 213 

Gold,  distribution  of,  239; 
methods  of  mining,  240 

Government,  8 

Guru,  order  of  priesthood,  96 

Hamlet  a  political  unit,  13 

Health,  state  of,  31 

Health    department    of    the 

port,  112 
History  of  Siam,  sources  of, 

80,  82 
Houses,  types  of,  47 

Illiteracy  rare,  45 

Imports,  character  of,  253; 
extent  of,  259 

Indu  influence  traceable  in 
Siam,  214,  216 

Industries,  chapter  on,  261 

Inscriptions,  importance  of, 
223 

Interior,  Ministry  of,  15 

Iron,  early  use  of,  in  con- 
struction, 225;  production 
of,  241;  working  of ,  27 

Irrigation,  importance  of,  47, 
162 

Irrigation  department,  15 

Justice,  chapter  on  Ministry 
of,  184 

Kamoo  people,  home  of,  32 
Karen  people,  home  of,  32 
King,     born,     3 ;      European 

tour,  3;  highest  supporter 

of  Buddhism,  95 
Korat  plateau,  description  of, 

55 


Kra  isthmus  described,  21 

Lacquer,  manufacture  of,  2  7 ; 

early  use  of,   226 
Land,  laws  relating  to  tenure 

of,  46 
Land  record,  department  of, 

15 
Language   of  Siam,   chapter 

on,  89 
Laos  people,  description  of, 

Latrines,  use  of,  in  Bangkok, 

118 

Law  school,  value  of,  190 
Laws    of    Siam,    codification 

of,  84,  1 88 

Lead,  distribution  of,  240 
Legal    advisers,    number   of, 

J93 

Life,  Buddhistic  view  of,  100 
Local    government,    cost    of, 

J35 
Lower  Siam,    described,    33; 

temperature  of,  38 
Lu,  home  of,  31 

Magistrates,     limited     func- 
tion of,  196 

Maize,  cultivation  of,  163 
Malay     Peninsula,     Siamese 
provinces  of,  56;   physical 
features  of,  57,  60;    popu- 
lation of,  59 
Manuscripts,    ancient    forms 

rare,  222 

Markets  referred  to,  no 
Meat  inspection  rigid,  115 
Medical   officers   in   sanitary 

service,  112 

Medicine,  school  of,  208 
Mekawng     River    described, 

20,  36 
Menam  River  described,  20, 

34 
Meow,  home  of,  31 


2  78 


Index 


Meteorology  of  Bangkok,  116 
Migration   of  early   Siamese, 

81 
Military  education,  form  of, 

70 
Military   service,    nature    of, 

66 

Millet,  cultivation  of,  163 
Mines,    department    of,    or- 
ganized, 239 
Mining,  chapter  on,  239 
Mining  act  in  force,  239 
Mining  revenue,   amount  of, 

.!33 

Ministers,  council  of,  9 
Ministries,  location  of,  106 
Mint,  receipts  from,  133 
Mongkut,  reference  to  King, 

84 

Monk,  functions  of,  in  priest- 
hood, 98 

Monsoons,  time  of,  38 
Monthon,  administration  of, 

12 
Monuments,  ancient  Siamese, 

216 

Mother-of-pearl,  early  exam- 
ples of,  226 

Nam   Ping  River  described, 

34 

Nam  Po  River  described,  35 
Narratives  of  travellers  un- 
reliable, 85 

National    banks   under   con- 
sideration, 149 
Naval  education,  form  of,  73 
Navy  described,  73 
Negritos  described,  59 
New  Road  described,  107 
Nirvana  explained,  100 

Octroi,  effect  of,  134 
Official  gazette,  value  of,  85 
Oil,  evidences  of  natural,  245 
Oxen,  breeding  of,  28 


Paknampo,  location  of,  36 
Palace,    reference    to   Royal, 

106,  108 
Paleographic       peculiarities, 

224 

Pali,  study  of,  205 
Paper,  making  of,  270 
Paper  currency,  issue  of,  146 
Pasak  River  described,  35 
Patrols,  stations  for,  75 
Pawn    shops    supervised    by 

police,  123 
Pepper,      growth     of,      167; 

amount  exported,  251 
Petroleum,  evidences  of,  245 
Police,  Bangkok,  120;  Puket, 

Police   courts,   procedure  in, 

I9S 

Poll-tax  paid  by  Chinese,  134 
Polygamy    permissible,    but 

not  general,  45 
Poppy,  cultivation  of,  26 
Population,  character  of,  31; 

Bangkok,  m;  Lower  Siam, 

43;  Upper  Siam,  33 
Port,  health  department  of, 

112 
Postal    affairs,    statistics    of, 

235 

Pottery,  first  examples  of 
glazed,  225;  manufacture 
of,  28,  266 

Premane  grounds  described, 
107 

Priesthood,  organization  of, 
96;  induction  into,  99 

Priests,  educational  services 
of,  45 ;  great  influence  of, 
99;  under  state  control,  99 

Primary  schools,  wide  distri- 
bution of,  205 

Prince  Royal  serves  as  priest, 

99 

Prisons,  control  of,  193 
Privy  Council  referred  to,  ir 


Index 


279 


Procedure,  method  of  crim- 
inal, 1 88 

Products,  list  of  principal, 
250 

Property,  possession  of,  46 

Province,  administration  of, 
13 

Public  works,  divisions  of, 
10 ;  expenditures  for,  138 

Puket,  special  police  force 
for.  75 

Quarantine,  duration  of,  113 

Railroads,  appropriation  for 
construction  of,  138;  ex- 
tent of,  233;  revenue  from, 

i33 

Rainfall,  average,  31;  at 
Bangkok,  116;  in  Lower 
Siam,  40 

Religion,  chapter  on,  95;  in- 
fluence of,  45 

Resin,  manufacture  of,  29 
Revenues,  of  Bangkok,  119; 
of  Siam,  129,  131;  reasons 
for  increase,   130;    sources 
of,  131 

Rice,  cultivation  of,  156; 
importance  of,  153;  kinds 
of,  23,  1 60;  number  of  mills 
for,  264 

Rifle  practice  encouraged,  76 
Rinderpest,  absence  of,  115 
Rivers    of    Lower    Siam    de- 
scribed, 49 
Roads,  extent  of,  in  Bangkok, 

107 

Royal  Family,  chapter  on,  3 
Rubies,  extent  of,   243 

Salt,  extraction  of,  29,  265 
Saltpetre,     manufacture    of, 

29,  246 
Samsen  Road  described,  108 


Sanitary    service    described, 

112,  119 

Sapphires,  extent  of,  243 
Scholarship     esteemed     and 

encouraged,  204 
Schools,    frequency   of,    205; 

topics  taught  in,  205;  value 

of  law,  190 
Sentence  unit   of   speech   in 

Siamese,  90 
Sericulture,    organization    of 

department  of,   137 
Sesamum,  cultivation  of,  165 
Sewerage    system    at    Bang- 
kok, 117 
Shipping,    statistics   of,    230, 

256 
Ships  of  the  navy,  names  of, 

74 

Siam,  historically  considered, 
79;  civilization  of,  44;  de- 
rivation of  the  word,  79; 
gendarmerie,  7  5 ;  general 
description  of,  19;  lan- 
guage of,  89 ;  physical  char- 
acteristics of  the  people  of, 

44 
Silk,  manufacture  of ,  26,  266; 

improvements  in,  137 
Silver,    cessation   of   coinage 

of,  143 

Silverware,  manufacture  of, 
27 

Slavery,  abolition  of,  45 

Soil,  character  of,  22 

Sons  of  the  King,  European 
training  of,  5 

Souls,  reference  to  migration 
of,  100 

Spirits,  manufacture  of,  265 

Staff,  organization  of  army,  7  2 

State  Council,  referred  to,  n 

Statistics,  criminal,  126;  ju- 
dicial, 194 

Statuettes,  examples  of  early 
forms,  225 


280 


Index 


Sticklac,  manufacture  of,  28 
Sugar,  limited  production  of, 

28,  166 
Sulphur  springs,  existence  of, 

22 

Supan  River  described,  35 
Supreme  Court,  decisions  of, 

1 88 

Surplus,  annual,  129 
Survey  department,  referred 

to,  15;  school  of,  208 

Talesap  plain  described,  50 
Tea,  cultivation  of,   25 
Teachers,  lack  of,  209 
Teak,  amount  exported,  251; 
importance  of ,  173;  output 
of,  177;  regulations  regard- 
ing, 174 

Telegraph,  statistics  of,  235 
Telephones,  use  of,  236 
Temperature,'  mean,   30;    at 
Bangkok,    116;    in   Lower 
Si  am,  39 
Terra-cotta,  manufacture  of, 

272 
Text-books,    compilation   of, 

207 
Thai,  name  given  by  Siamese 

to  themselves,  79 
Tiles,  manufacture  of,  28 
Tin,  importance  of,  241 
Tobacco,  cultivation  of,   24, 
163 


Tones  in  the  Siamese  lan- 
guage, number  of,  90 

Trade,  rapid  development  of, 
249;  of  Upper  Siam,  33 

Traffic,   increase  in  railway, 

133 

Tramways,  extent  of,  234 
Transportation,     means     of, 

229 
Treaties,   commercial,    249 

Uniforms  of  police,  121 
Upper  Siam  described,  21 

Vegetables,  growth  of,  26 
Village  as  a  unit  of  govern- 
ment, 13 

Vocabulary,  origin  of  Siam- 
ese, 90 

War  of  the  Polish  Succession, 

written  by  Crown  Prince,  5 

Wars,  early  Siamese,  83 


Ipper 


Water     systems     of 

Siam,  22 
Wind,  force  of,  in  Siam,  42 
Woman,  high  position  of,  45 
Wood,  early  use  of,  in  tem- 
ples, 226 ;  kinds  of,  in  Siam, 
174,  178,  181 

Written  Siamese  characters, 
derivation  of,  89 

Yao  people,  home  of,  32 


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